Rethinking the fourth amendment: Race, citizenship, and the equality principle

Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 1-49

  Capers, Bennett ^a  

^a HOFSTRA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 80455172212     PISSN: 00178039     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (240)

1. Michael J. Klarman, The Racial Origins of Modern Criminal Procedure, 99 MICH. L. REV. 48 (2000).
2. Tracey L. Meares, What's Wrong with Gideon, 70 U. CHI. L. REV. 215 (2003).
3. Carol S. Steiker, Second Thoughts about First Principles, 107 HARV. L. REV. 820, 841-44 (1994). As David Sklansky recently argued, concern for the rights of sexual minorities may have also played a role in the development of our criminal procedure jurisprudence.
4. David Alan Sklansky, "One Train May Hide Another": Katz, Stonewall, and the Secret Subtext of Criminal Procedure, 41 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 875 (2008).
5. Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
6. Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932).
7. Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278 (1936).
8. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
9. Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145 (1968).
10. Dan M. Kahan & Tracey L. Meares, Foreword: The Coming Crisis of Criminal Procedure, 86 GEO. L.J. 1153 (1998).
11. Symposium, Post-racialism in American Law and Lawyering, 98 GEO. L.J. 921 (2010). For a recent critique of the notion that post-racialism has been achieved.
12. Ian F. Haney-Ĺopez, Post-Racial Racism: Racial Stratification and Mass Incarceration in the Age of Obama, 98 CALIF. L. REV. 1023 (2010).
13. CORNEL WEST, RACE MATTERS (2001).
14. I. Bennett Capers, Crime, Legitimacy, and Testilying, 83 IND. L.J. 835 (2008).
15. I. Bennett Capers, Policing, Race, and Place, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 43 (2009).
16. BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, 2002 SOURCEBOOK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE STATISTICS 116 tbl.2.13, 123 tbl.2.25 (2002), available at http://www.albany. edu/sourcebook/pdf/sb2002/sb2002-section2.pdf.
17. Russell K. Robinson, Perceptual Segregation, 108 COLUM. L. REV. 1093 (2008).
18. Abby Goodnough, Harvard Professor Jailed; Officer is Accused of Bias, N.Y. TIMES, July 20, 2009, at A1. For an excellent analysis of Gates's arrest and the ensuing controversy.
19. CHARLES J. OLGETREE, JR., THE PRESUMPTION OF GUILT: THE ARREST OF HENRY LOUIS GATES, JR. AND RACE, CLASS, AND CRIME IN AMERICA (2010).
20. RANDALL KENNEDY, RACE, CRIME, AND THE LAW 159 (1998).
21. JODY DAVID ARMOUR, NEGROPHOBIA AND REASONABLE RACISM: THE HIDDEN COSTS OF BEING BLACK 13-14 (1997) (discussing a "black tax").
22. KENNETH L. KARST, BELONGING TO AMERICA: EQUAL CITIZENSHIP AND THE CONSTITUTION (1991).
23. Jennifer Gordon & R. A. Lenhardt, Citizenship Talk: Bridging the Gap Between Immigration and Race Perspectives, 75 FORDHAM L. REV. 2493 (2007).
24. LANI GUINIER & GERALD TORRES, THE MINER'S CANARY: ENLISTING RACE, RESISTING POWER, TRANSFORMING DEMOCRACY 11 (2002).
25. Henry J. Friendly, The Bill of Rights as a Code of Criminal Procedure, 53 CALIF. L. REV. 929 (1965).
26. Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment, 101 YALE L.J. 1193 (1992).
27. George C. Thomas III, When Constitutional Worlds Collide: Resurrecting the Framers' Bill of Rights and Criminal Procedure, 100 MICH. L. REV. 145 (2001).
28. Barron v. Mayor of Baltimore, 32 U.S. (7 Pet.) 243, 247-48 (1833).
29. Palko v. Connecticut, 302 U.S. 319 (1937).
30. Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46, 51 (1947), the Court reaffirmed Twining.
31. LAWRENCE M. FRIEDMAN, CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN AMERICAN HISTORY 301 (1993).
32. RICHARD C. CORTNER, A "SCOTTSBORO" CASE IN MISSISSIPPI: THE SUPREME COURT AND BROWN V. MISSISSIPPI (1986).
33. STEPHEN A. SALTZBURG & DANIEL J. CAPRA, AMERICAN CRIMINAL PROCEDURE: INVESTIGATIVE 9-10 (7th ed. 2004).
34. Herbert L. Packer, The Courts, the Police, and the Rest of Us, 57 J. CRIM. L. CRIMINOLOGY & POLICE SCI. 238, 240 (1966).
35. A. Kenneth Pye, The Warren Court and Criminal Procedure, 67 MICH. L. REV. 249, 256 (1968).
36. Louis Michael Seidman, Brown and Miranda, 80 CALIF. L. REV. 673, 751 (1992).
37. BERNARD SCHWARTZ, SUPER CHIEF: EARL WARREN AND HIS SUPREME COURT-A JUDICIAL BIOGRAPHY 591 (1983).
38. Mawell v. Dow, 176 U.S. 581, 603 (1900).
39. Nancy J. King, Duncan v. Louisiana: How Bigotry in the Bayou Led to the Federal Regulation of State Juries, in CRIMINAL PROCEDURE STORIES 262 (Carol S. Steiker ed., 2006) (quoting Jurisdictional Statement, Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145 (1968) (No. 410), 1967 WL 129492, at *4-5).
40. Jack Langguth, Louisiana Parish Fights Pentagon: Leander Perez Keeps Area Bastion of Segregation, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 5, 1963, at A20.
41. La. County Resists FBI Vote Probe, WASH. POST, Aug. 19, 1961, at A2.
42. Prison Perez Style: Ready for Race Demonstrators, U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., Nov. 4, 1963, at 16.
43. Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145 (1968) (No. 410), 1967 WL 113845, at *18.
44. Charles J. Ogletree, Jr., An Essay on the New Public Defender for the 21st Century, 58 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 81, 83 (1995).
45. DAN T. CARTER, SCOTTSBORO: A TRAGEDY OF THE AMERICAN SOUTH 81-84, 206-13, 229-32 (1969).
46. Brown v. Mississippi.
47. Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278, 282-84 (1936).
48. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 660 (1961).
49. Duncan v. Perez, 321 F. Supp. 181, 184 (E.D. La. 1979), aff'd, 445 F.2d 557 (5th Cir. 1971).
50. David Cole, Gideon v. Wainwright and Strickland v. Washington: Broken Promises, in CRIMINAL PROCEDURE STORIES, supra note 48, at 102.
51. Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303, 306 (1879) (emphasis added).
52. Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 635 (1886)).
53. Yale Kamisar, Equal Justice in the Gatehouses and Mansions of American Criminal Procedure: From Powell to Gideon, From Escobedo to . . ., in CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN OUR TIME 25 (A.E. Dick Howard ed., 1965).
54. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 460 (1966) (emphasis added).
55. Kenneth L. Karst, The Liberties of Equal Citizens: Groups and the Due Process Clause, 55 UCLA L. REV. 99, 115 (2007).
56. United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109, 123 (1984)).
57. Peter Baker, A Presidential Pitfall: Speaking One's Mind, N.Y. TIMES, July 27, 2009, at A13.
58. Julia Preston, Latino Groups Urge Boycott of Arizona Over New Law, N.Y. TIMES, May 7, 2010, at A16.
59. CNN/Opinion Research Corporation Poll, Jul. 31-Aug. 3, 2009, available at http://www.pollingreport.com/race.htm (last visited Oct. 2, 2010).
60. BERNARD E. HARCOURT, AGAINST PREDICTION: PROFILING, POLICING, AND PUNISHING IN AN ACTUARIAL AGE (2007).
61. DAVID A. HARRIS, PROFILES IN INJUSTICE: WHY RACIAL PROFILING CANNOT WORK (2002).
62. Albert W. Alschuler, Racial Profiling and the Constitution, 2002 U. CHI. LEGAL. F. 163.
63. R. Richard Banks, Beyond Profiling: Race, Policing, and the Drug War, 56 STAN. L. REV. 571 (2003).
64. Katherine Y. Barnes, Assessing the Counterfactual: The Efficacy of Drug Interdiction Absent Racial Profiling, 54 DUKE L.J. 1089 (2005).
65. Samuel R. Gross & Katherine Y. Barnes, Road Work: Racial Profiling and Drug Interdiction on the Highway, 101 MICH. L. REV. 651 (2002).
66. Samuel R. Gross & Debra Livingston, Racial Profiling Under Attack, 102 COLUM. L. REV. 1413 (2002).
67. Bernard E. Harcourt, Rethinking Racial Profiling: A Critique of the Economics, Civil Liberties, and Constitutional Literature, and of Criminal Profiling More Generally, 71 U. CHI. L. REV. 1275 (2004).
68. JUDITH N. SHKLAR, AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP: THE QUEST FOR INCLUSION (1991).
69. GENDER EQUALITY: DIMENSIONS OF WOMEN'S EQUAL CITIZENSHIP (Joanna L. Grossman & Linda C. McClain eds., 2009).
70. Joanna L. Grossman, Pregnancy, Work, and the Promise of Equal Citizenship, 98 GEO. L.J. 567 (2010).
71. CARL STYCHIN, GOVERNING SEXUALITY: THE CHANGING POLITICS OF CITIZENSHIP AND LAW REFORM (2003).
72. BRENDA COSSMAN, SEXUAL CITIZENS: THE LEGAL AND CULTURAL REGULATION OF SEX AND BELONGING (2007).
73. Devon Carbado, Racial Naturalization, 57 AM. Q. 633, 634 (2005).
74. Neil Gotanda, Race, Citizenship, and the Search R for Political Community Among "We the People, " 76 OR. L. REV. 233 (1997).
75. Dorothy E. Roberts, Welfare and the Problem of Black Citizenship, 105 YALE L.J. 1563, 1574-75 (1996).
76. Leti Volpp, Citizenship Undone, 75 FORDHAM L. REV. 2579 (2007).
77. Nilanjana Dasgupta, Implicit Ingroup Favoritism, Outgroup Favoritism, and Their Behavioral Manifestations, 17 SOC. JUST. RES. 143, 146 (2004).
78. Charles R. Lawrence III, The Id, the Ego, and Equal Protection: Reckoning with Unconscious Racism, 39 STAN. L. REV. 317 (1987).
79. Jerry Kang, Trojan Horses of Race, 118 HARV. L. REV. 1489, 1491-1528 (2005).
80. JONATHAN SIMON, GOVERNING THROUGH CRIME: HOW THE WAR ON CRIME TRANSFORMED AMERICAN DEMOCRACY AND CREATED A CULTURE OF FEAR (2007).
81. I. Bennett Capers, The Unintentional Rapist, 87 WASH. U. L. REV. 1345 (2010) (discussing the racialized application of resources in rape cases).
82. Wilkins v. Md. State Police, No. MJG-93-468 (D. Md. 1993).
83. David Harris, "Driving While Black" and All Other Traffic Offenses: The Supreme Court and Pretextual Stops, 87 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 544, 563 (1997).
84. Louis B. Schwartz, On Current Proposals to Legalize Wire Tapping, 103 U. PA. L. REV. 157, 157 (1954).
85. ACLU OF ARIZ., DRIVING WHILE BLACK OR BROWN (2008), available at http://acluaz.org/DrivingWhileBlackorBrown.pdf.
86. Ian Ayres, ACLU OF S. CAL., RACIAL PROFILING AND THE LAPD: A STUDY OF RACIALLY DISPARATE OUTCOMES IN THE LOS ANGELES POLICE DEPARTMENT (2008), available at http://www.aclu-sc.org/contents/view/3.
87. Kim Forde-Mazrui, Ruling out the Rule of Law, 60 VAND. L REV. 1497, 1516-30 (2007).
88. Pennsylvania v. Mimms, 434 U.S. 106 (1977) (drivers).
89. Maryland v. Wilson, 519 U.S. 408 (1997) (passengers).
90. Bernard E. Harcourt, Henry Louis Gates and Racial Profiling: What's the Problem (U. of Chi., Law & Economics, Olin Working Paper No. 482, 2009), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1474809.
91. Arizona v. Johnson, 129 S. Ct. 781, 788 (2009).
92. Illinois v. Caballes, 543 U.S. 405 (2004).
93. United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696 (1983).
94. Atwater v. City of Lago Vista, 532 U.S. 318 (2001).
95. Arizona v. Gant, 129 S. Ct. 1710 (2009) (narrowing, but not eliminating, the rule permitting the search of vehicles incident to arrest).
96. Patrick McGreevy, Question of Race Profiling Unanswered, L.A. TIMES, July 12, 2006, at B3.
97. United States v. Drayton, 536 U.S. 104 (2002).
98. Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429 (1991).
99. Brendan J. Lyons, Harsh, Unwarranted Tactics? Outcry Over Sheriff's Department Search Methods, TIMES UNION (Albany, N.Y.), Mar. 2, 2008, at D1.
100. Study Finds, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 10, 2000, at A17.
101. Tracey Maclin, The Decline of the Right of Locomotion: The Fourth Amendment on the Streets, 75 CORNELL L. REV. 128 (1990).
102. ACLU OF N.Y., Analysis of New NYPD Stop-and-Frisk Data Reveals Dramatic Impact on Black New Yorkers (Nov. 26, 2007), http://www.aclu.org/racialjustice/ racialprofiling/33095prs20071126.html.
103. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Black Man, NEW YORKER, Oct. 23, 1995, at 4.
104. Paul Butler, Walking While Black: Encounters with the Police on My Street, LEGAL TIMES, Nov. 10, 1997, at 23.
105. Devon W. Carbado, (Eracing the Fourth Amendment, 100 MICH. L. REV. 946 (2002).
106. John Knowles et al., Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence, 109 J. POL. ECON. 203 (2001).
107. Lawrence Rosenthal, The Crime Drop and the Fourth Amendment: Toward an Empirical Jurisprudence of Search and Seizure, 29 N.Y.U. REV. L. & SOC. CHANGE 641 (2005).
108. PEW RESEARCH CTR., BLACKS UPBEAT ABOUT BLACK PROGRESS, PROSPECTS (2010), available at http://pewsocialtrends.org/assets/pdf/blacks-upbeat-about-black- progress-prospects.pdf.
109. Kenneth L. Karst, Myths of Identity: Individual and Group Portraits of Race and Sexual Orientation, 43 UCLA L. REV. 263, 290 (1995) (defining scripts as "cluster[s] of expectations").
110. Holning Lau, Identity Scripts & Democratic Deliberation, 94 MINN. L. REV. 897, 902-10 (2010).
111. Monica Davey, GOP Women Call Palin Criticism 'Sexist, ' N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 3, 2008, at A1.
112. Jodi Kantor & Rachel L. Swarns, A New Twist in the Debate on Mothers, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 1, 2008, at A1.
113. Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989).
114. Katherine T. Bartlett, Only Girls Wear Barrettes: Dress & Appearance Standards, Community Norms, and Workplace Equality, 92 MICH. L. REV. 2541, 2547 (1994).
115. Devon W. Carbado & Mitu Gulati, Working Identity, 85 CORNELL L. REV. 1259, 1267, 1292-93 (2000).
116. Rogers v. American Airlines, 527 F. Supp. 229 (S.D.N.Y. 1981).
117. Jespersen v. Harrah's Operating Co., 444 F.3d 1104 (9th Cir. 2006).
118. KENJI YOSHINO, COVERING (2006).
119. PAUL BARRETT, THE GOOD BLACK: A TRUE STORY OF RACE IN AMERICA (2000).
120. Paulette M. Caldwell, A Hairpiece: Perspectives on the Intersection of Race and Gender, 1991 DUKE L.J. 367 (1991).
121. Stop, Question and Frisk in New York Neighborhoods, N.Y. TIMES, July 12, 2010, at A16.
122. Tracey Maclin, "Black and Blue Encounters"- Some Preliminary Thoughts About Fourth Amendment Seizures: Should Race Matter?, 26 VAL. U. L. REV. 243, 250 (1991).
123. M. K. B. Darmer, Teaching Whren to White Kids, 15 MICH. J. RACE & L. 109, 113 (2009).
124. David R. James borrows the phrase "race-making situation" from Edgar T. Thompson, The Racial Ghetto as a Race-Making Situation: The Effects of Residential Segregation on Racial Inequalities and Racial Identity, 19 LAW & SOC. INQUIRY 407, 413 n.19 (1994).
125. E. T. Thompson, The Plantation as a Race-Making Situation, in PLANTATION SOCIETIES, RACE RELATIONS AND THE SOUTH 115 (1975)).
126. Stephen Jay Gould, THE MISMEASURE OF MAN (rev. ed. 1996).
127. Lynn B. Jorde & Stephen P. Wooding, Genetic Variation, Classification and 'Race, ' in 36 NATURE GENETICS S28 (2004).
128. Michael Omi & Howard Winant, RACIAL FORMATION IN THE UNITED STATES: FROM THE 1960S TO THE 1990S 55 (2d ed. 1994).
129. Ian F. Haney Ĺopez, The Social Construction of Race: Some Observations on Illusion, Fabrication, and Choice, 29 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 1 (1994).
130. Angela P. Harris, Foreword: The Jurisprudence of Reconstruction, 82 CALIF. L. REV. 741, 774 (1994).
131. RICHARD RODRIGUEZ, BROWN: THE LAST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA (2002).
132. FRANK H. WU, YELLOW: RACE IN AMERICA BEYOND BLACK AND WHITE (2002).
133. Devon W. Carbado, Yellow by Law, 97 CALIF. L. REV. 633 (2009).
134. Cheryl I. Harris, Whiteness as Property, 106 HARV. L. REV. 1707 (1993).
135. Paul Brest, Foreword: In Defense of the Antidiscrimination Principle, The Supreme Court, 1975 Term, 90 HARV. L. REV. 1, 8 (1976).
136. Richard A. Wasserstrom, Racism, Sexism, and Preferential Treatment: An Approach to the Topics, 24 UCLA L. REV. 581, 593 (1977).
137. Erving Goffman, STIGMA: NOTES ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SPOILED IDENTITY (1963).
138. Glenn C. Loury, THE ANATOMY OF RACIAL INEQUALITY (2002).
139. R.A. Lenhardt, Understanding the Mark: Race, Stigma, and Equality in Context, 79 N.Y.U. L. REV. 803 (2004).
140. Alexandra Natapoff, Underenforcement, 75 FORD- HAM L. REV. 1715, 1722-44 (2005).
141. Gowri Ramachandran, Antisubordination, Rights, and Radicalism, 40 CONN. L. REV. 1045, 1053 (2008).
142. Tracey L. Meares, Neal Katyal & Dan M. Kahan, Updating the Study of Punishment, 56 STAN. L. REV. 1171, 1184 (2004).
143. Elizabeth S. Anderson & Richard H. Pildes, Expressive Theories of Law: A General Restatement, 148 U. PA. L. REV. 1503 (2000).
144. Dan M. Kahan, What Do Alternative Sanctions Mean?, 62 U. CHI. L. REV. 591 (1996). (Pubitemid 126408719)
145. Lawrence Lessig, The Regulation of Social Meaning, 62 U. CHI. L. REV. 943 (1995).
146. Florida v. Jimeno, 500 U.S. 248 (1991).
147. William J. Stuntz, Privacy's Problem and the Law of Criminal Procedure, 93 MICH. L. REV. 1016, 1064 (1995).
148. Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420, 438 (1984).
149. Dorothy E. Roberts, Foreword: Race, Vagueness, and the Social Meaning of Order- Maintenance Policing, 89 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 775, 810 (1999).
150. Devah Pager, MARKED: RACE, CRIME, AND FINDING WORK IN AN ERA OF MASS INCARCERATION 90-92 (2007).
151. Calvin Sims, An Arm in the Air for That Cab Ride Home, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 15, 2006, at A1.
152. Shelby Steele, Haling While Black, TIME, July 20, 2001, at 1.
153. Elizabeth F. Emens, Intimate Discrimination: The State's Role in the Accidents of Sex and Love, 122 HARV. L. REV. 1307 (2009).
154. Perspectives, NEWSWEEK, Dec. 13, 1993, at 17 (quoting Jesse Jackson).
155. DEREK PARFIT, REASONS AND PERSONS 80-81 (1984). The various harms that I have elucidated work in a similar fashion.
156. Kevin R. Johnson, The Case Against Racial Profiling in Immigration Enforcement, 78 WASH. U. L.Q. 675 (2000).
157. Kevin R. Johnson, Open Borders, 51 UCLA L. REV. 193, 218 (2003).
158. James H. Kettner, THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP, 1608-1870, at 320 (1978).
159. Sally E. Hadden, SLAVE PATROLS: LAW AND VIOLENCE IN VIRGINIA AND THE CAROLINAS (2001).
160. ANDREW TASLITZ, RECONSTRUCTING THE FOURTH AMENDMENT: A HISTORY OF SEARCH AND SEIZURES, 1789-1868, at 106-21 (2006).
161. WALTER JOHNSON, SOUL BY SOUL: LIFE INSIDE THE ANTEBELLUM SLAVE MARKET 149-50 (1999).
162. W.E.B. DU BOIS: A READER 559 (David Levering Lewis ed., 1995).
163. James W. Loewen, SUNDOWN TOWNS: A HIDDEN DIMENSION OF AMERICAN RACISM (2005).
164. Jeannie Bell, The Fair Housing Act and Extralegal Terror, 41 IND. L.J. 537, 540-41 (2008).
165. Gabriel J. Chin, The Jena Six and the History of Racially Compromised Justice in Louisiana, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 361, 363 (2009).
166. Nikhil Pal Singh, BLACK IS A COUNTRY: RACE AND THE UNFINISHED STRUGGLE FOR DEMOCRACY 14 (2004).
167. Scott E. Sundby, A Return to Fourth Amendment Basics: Undoing the Mischief of Camara and Terry, 72 MINN. L. REV. 383 (1988).
168. John Q. Barrett, Deciding the Stop and Frisk Cases: A Look Inside the Supreme Court's Conference, 72 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 749, 758 (1998).
169. Louis Stokes, Representing John W. Terry, 72 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 727, 729 (1998).
170. Anthony C. Thompson, Stopping the Usual Suspects: Race and the Fourth Amendment, 74 N.Y.U. L. REV. 956 (1999).
171. Widespread Disorders, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 5, 1968, at A1.
172. Looting . . . Arson . . . Death . . . As Riots Swept U.S. Cities, U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., Apr. 15, 1968, at 8.
173. Mobs Run Wild in the Nation's Capital, U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., Apr. 15, 1968, at 8.
174. Stephan Thernstrom & Abigail Thernstrom, AMERICA IN BLACK AND WHITE, ONE NATION, INDIVISIBLE 158-70 (1997).
175. Earl C. Dudley, Jr., Terry v. Ohio, the Warren Court, and the Fourth Amendment: A Law Clerk's Perspective, 72 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 891, 892-93 (1998).
176. RICK PEARLSTEIN, NIXONLAND: THE RISE OF A PRESIDENT AND THE FRACTURING OF AMERICA (2008).
177. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 13 (1989) (Marshall, J., dissenting).
178. United States v. Sokolow, 831 F.2d 1413, 1418 (9th Cir. 1987)).
179. Tracey Maclin, Terry v. Ohio's Fourth Amendment Legacy: Black Men and Police Discretion, 72 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 1271, 1278 (1998).
180. Adina Schwartz, "Just Take Away Their Guns": The Hidden Racism of Terry v. Ohio, 23 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 317, 365-73 (1996).
181. Omar Saleem, The Age of Unreason: The Impact of Reasonableness, Increased Police Force, and Colorblindness on Terry "Stop and Frisk, " 50 OKLA. L. REV. 451 (1997).
182. I. Bennett Capers, On Justitia, Race, Gender, and Blindness, 12 MICH. J. RACE & L. 203, 214-24 (2006).
183. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMISSION ON CIVIL DISORDERS 158 (1968).
184. ED CRAY, CHIEF JUSTICE: A BIOGRAPHY OF EARL WARREN 466-68 (1997).
185. BERNARD SCHWARTZ, SUPER CHIEF: EARL WARREN AND HIS SUPREME COURT-A JUDICIAL BIOGRAPHY 685-87 (1983).
186. David A. Sklansky, Traffic Stops, Minority Motorists, and the Future of the Fourth Amendment, 1997 SUP. CT. REV. 271, 326-29.
187. Wayne R. LaFave, The "Routine Traffic Stop" from Start to Finish: Too Much "Routine, " Not Enough Fourth Amendment, 102 MICH. L. REV. 1843, 1860-61 (2004).
188. Elizabeth A. Gaynes, The Urban Criminal Justice System: Where Young + Black + Male = Probable Cause, 20 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 621 (1993).
189. JAMES BALDWIN, THE FIRE NEXT TIME 24 (1963).
190. John B. Mitchell, What Went Wrong with the Warren Court's Conception of the Fourth Amendment?, 27 NEW ENG. L. REV. 35, 41 (1992).
191. Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 810 (1996).
192. Meir Dan-Cohen, Decision Rules and Conduct Rules: On Acoustic Separation in the Criminal Law, 97 HARV. L. REV. 625 (1984).
193. Albert W. Altschuler, Racial Profiling and the Constitution, 2002 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 163, 193.
194. William W. Freehling, The Founding Fathers and Slavery, 77 AM. HIST. REV. 81 (1972).
195. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1856), .
196. Akhil R. Amar, Fourth Amendment First Principles, 107 HARV. L. REV. 757, 805-10 (1994).
197. Akhil R. Amar, The Case of the Missing Amendments: R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 106 HARV. L. REV. 124, 152 (1992).
198. Akhil Reed Amar, THE BILL OF RIGHTS: CREATION AND RECONSTRUCTION 268 (1998).
199. Darrell A.H. Miller, Guns as Smut: Defending the Home-Bound Second Amendment, 109 COLUM. L. REV. 1278, 1327-36 (2009).
200. Noah Feldman, From Liberty to Equality: The Transformation of the Establishment Clause, 90 CALIF. L. REV. 673 (2002) (using equality as a principle for understanding Establishment Clause cases).
201. Nan D. Hunter, Living with Lawrence, 88 MINN. L. REV. 1103 (2004) (arguing that equality should inform due process jurisprudence).
202. United States v. Weaver, 966 F.2d 391 (8th Cir. 1992).
203. United States v. Avery, 137 F.3d 343 (6th Cir. 1997).
204. Johnson v. Crooks, 326 F.3d 995 (8th Cir. 2003).
205. Bingham v. City of Manhattan Beach, 329 F.3d 723 (9th Cir. 2003).
206. Bradley v. United States, 299 F.3d 197 (3d Cir. 2002).
207. United States v. Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456 (1996).
208. United States v. Bullock, 94 F.3d 896 (4th Cir. 1996).
209. Angela Davis, Prosecution and Race: The Power and Privilege of Discretion, 67 FORDHAM L. REV. 13 (1998).
210. Andrea Elliott, After 9/11, Arab-Americans Fear Police Acts, Study Finds, N.Y. TIMES, June 12, 2006, at A1.
211. Leti Volp, The Citizen and the Terrorist, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1575, 1578 (2002). This too would be prohibited under my proposal.
212. Ronald J. Allen et al., COMPREHENSIVE CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 569 (2d ed. 2005).
213. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973).
214. Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (2007).
215. Jeffrey Rosen, The Color-Blind Court, THE NEW REPUBLIC, July 31, 1995, at 23.
216. Justin D. Levinson et al., Guilty by Implicit Racial Bias: The Guilty/Not Guilty Implicit Association Test, OHIO ST. J. CRIM. LAW (forthcoming 2011).
217. Max Lerner, Constitution and Court as Symbols, 46 YALE L.J. 1290 (1937).
218. Ralph Lerner, The Supreme Court as Republican Schoolmaster, 1967 SUP. CT. REV. 127.
219. Suzanne B. Goldberg, Constitutional Tipping Points: Civil Rights, Social Change, and Fact- Based Adjudication, 106 COLUM. L. REV. 1955 (2006).
220. Dan M. Kahan, Social Influence, Social Meaning, and Deterrence, 83 VA. L. REV. 349 (1997). (Pubitemid 127445624)
221. Commonwealth v. Mulvey, 784 N.E.2d 1138, 1142-43 (Mass. App. Ct. 2003).
222. I. Bennett Capers, Cross Dressing and the Criminal, 20 YALE J.L. & HUMAN. 1, 23 (2008).
223. I. Bennett Capers, Policing, Place, and Race, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 43, 75 (2009).
224. I. Bennett Capers, Real Rape Too, 99 CALIF. L. REV. (forthcoming 2011).
225. CYNTHIA LEE, MURDER AND THE REASONABLE MAN 12 (2003).
226. Creighton v. City of St. Paul, 766 F.2d 1269, 1270 (8th Cir. 1985).
227. Mark Maske, Texans' Moats, Wife Says Officer Pointed Gun at Her, WASH. POST, Mar. 31, 2009, at D3.
228. City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 46 (2000).
229. Lynch v. City of New York, 589 F.3d 94, 100 (2d Cir. 2009).
230. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 661 (1979).
231. STEPHEN A. SALTZBURG & DANIEL J. CAPRA, AMERICAN CRIMINAL PROCEDURE: INVESTIGATIVE 433 (8th ed. 2007) (describing checkpoints as now a "routine part of life").
232. City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32 (2000).
233. PATRICIA J. WILLIAMS, THE ALCHEMY OF RACE AND RIGHTS: DIARY OF A LAW PROFESSOR 146-56 (1991).
234. Malcolm Gladwell, Million-Dollar Murray: Why Problems Like Homelessness May Be Easier To Solve Than To Manage, NEW YORKER, Feb. 13, 2006, at 96.
235. Christopher Slobogin, Why Liberals Should Chuck the Exclusionary Rule, 1999 U. ILL. L. REV. 363 (proposing a damages regime as an alternative to the exclusionary rule).
236. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 10 (1968).
237. Andrea Wang, Illinois v. Wardlow and the Crisis of Legitimacy: An Argument for a "Real Cost" Balancing Test, 19 LAW & INEQ. 1, 20 (2001).
238. Alexis De Tocqueville, DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 275 (J.P. Mayer ed., Doubleday 1969) (1840).
239. Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, 478-79 (1928) (Brandeis, J., dissenting).
240. Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967).