Reconstructing the fourth amendment: A history of search and seizure, 1789-1868

Reconstructing the Fourth Amendment: A History of Search and Seizure, 1789-1868

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-362

  Taslitz, Andrew E ^a  

^a HOWARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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References (193)

1. For a summary of the plot of The Matrix, see Gerold J. Erion & Barry Smith, Skepticism, Morality, and the Matrix, in The Matrix and Philosophy: Welcome to the Desert of the Real 16, 16-17 (ed. William Irwin 2003) [hereinafter Desert of the Real] (also defining " the matrix" ).
2. See generally Chris Seay & Greg Garrett, The Gospel Reloaded: Exploring Spirituality (2003).
3. See Atwater v. City of Lago Vista, 121 S. Ct. 1536, 1153 (2001).
4. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, in Two Treatises of Government § 3, 131-35 (ed. Peter Laslett 1960).
5. See Andrew E. Taslitz, Hate Crimes, Free Speech, and the Contract of Mutual Indifference, 80 B.U. L. Rev. 1283, 1312-16 (2000).
6. See Leonard W. Levy, Origins of the Bill of Rights 150-79 (1999);
7. Leonard W. Levy, Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History 147-75 (1995);
8. Telford Taylor, Two Studies in Constitutional Interpretation 38 (1969);
9. The Bill of Rights: Original Meaning and Current Understanding 151-83 (ed. Eugene W. Hickok Jr. 1991);
10. see generally Nelson B. Lasson, The History and Development of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1937);
11. William Cuddihy & B. Carmon Hardy, A Man's House Was Not His Castle: Origins of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, 37 Wm. & Mary Q. 371, 378-91 nn. 38, 84, 91 (1980).
12. See, e.g., County of Riverside v. McLaughlin, 500 U.S. 44, 71 (1991) (Scalia, J., dissenting) (" One hears the complaint, nowadays, that the Fourth Amendment has become constitutional law for the guilty; that it benefits the career criminal (through the exclusionary rule) often and directly, but the ordinary citizen remotely if at all." );
13. see, e.g., Greg Wilson, Convicted Killer May Walk Free, Technicality Is Key, N.Y. Daily News, February 18, 2001, at A1;
14. see also New Jack City (Warner Bros. 1991); The Sopranos: Funhouse (HBO Cable Television 1999).
15. See generally Joel Best, Random Violence: How We Talk about New Crimes and New Victims 28-47 (1999) (discussing how the news media brings new crime problems to the public's attention);
16. Sarah Escholz, The Media and Fear of Crime: A Survey of the Research, 9 U. Fla. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 37 (1997);
17. Tracey L. McCain, The Interplay of Editorial and Prosecutorial Discretion in the Perpetuation of Racism in the Criminal Justice System, 25 Colum. J.L. & Soc. Probs. 601 (1992). On the reasons offered by the media for the declining crime rate
18. see Vincent F. Sacco, Media Constructions of Crime, 539 Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci. 141 (1995);
19. Jeffrey Toobin, Women in Black, New Yorker, October 30, 2000, at 48 (discussing tough-on-crime Texas judges joining the bench during the tenure of then-governor George W. Bush);
20. James Traub, Giuliani's New York, N.Y. Times Magazine, February 11, 2001, at 62 (describing the crime-reducing stop-and-frisk tactics of the NYPD). For an example of a political assault on a judge for enforcing constitutional due process
21. see Clarence Page, Ashcroft in Peril . . . or Due for a Grilling, Wash. Times, January 12, 2001, at A15.
22. On the public's surprising support for the " suppression remedy," which excludes from the jury's hearing testimony about evidence illegally seized, see Shmuel Lock, Crime, Public Opinion, and Civil Liberties: The Tolerant Public 45-47 (1999);
23. see generally Arthur G. LeFrancois, On Exorcising the Exclusionary Demons: An Essay on Rhetoric, Principle, and the Exclusionary Rule, 53 U. Cin. L. Rev. 49 (1984);
24. Bill Renkin, Abuse Evidence Reinstated: Justices Back Cops' Search in Terrell Case, Atlanta Journal-Constitution, March 3, 2001, at A1;
25. People v. Defore, 150 N.E. 585 (N.Y. 1926);
26. see also United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 907 (1984). Current arguments against the suppression remedy and striking the " constable has blundered" theme are summarized in H. Richard Uviller, Virtual Justice: The Flawed Prosecution of Crime in America 63-67 (1996). The leading academic stressing the primacy of truth-finding under the Fourth Amendment is Akhil Reed Amar.
27. See, e.g., Akhil Reed Amar, The Constitution and Criminal Procedure: First Principles 20, 28 (1997) [hereinafter Amar, First Principles].
28. See also, e.g., Harold J. Rothwax, Guilty: The Collapse of the Criminal Justice System 32, 64 (1996);
29. Michael J. Daponde, Comment, Discretion and the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule: A New Suppression Doctrine Based on Judicial Integrity, 30 McGeorge L. Rev. 1293, 1297, 1313 (1999);
30. Sharon L. Davies, The Penalty of Exclusion: A Price or a Sanction? 73 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1275, 1276 n. 6 (2000) (summarizing concisely the leading literature in the debate over the exclusionary rule);
31. Richard A. Posner, Excessive Sanctions for Governmental Misconduct in Criminal Cases, 57 Wash. L. Rev. 635, 638 (1982) (discussing excessive economic costs).
32. On " testilying" and judicial complicity in this phenomenon, see Alan M. Dershowitz, Reasonable Doubts: The O. J. Simpson Case and the Criminal Justice System 49-68 (1996) [hereinafter Dershowitz, O. J.]; Christopher Slobogin, Reform: The Police: Testilying: Police Perjury and What to Do about It, 67 U. Colo. L. Rev. 1037 (1996) [hereinafter Slobogin, Testilying].
33. Erik G. Luna, Sovereignty and Suspicion, 48 Duke L. J. 787, 787 (1999).
34. On the importance to judicial decision making of judge's attitudes, which are often embodied in the sorts of stories their opinions tell, see Anthony Amsterdam & Jerome Bruner, Minding the Law (2000).
35. See J. Thomas Greene, Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice, 40 Judges J. 22, 22-24 (2001) (arguing that the public's perception that criminals go free on technicalities partly reflects court's failure to explain to laypersons the value of such rules).
36. See The Salt of the Earth, in Lyrics of the Rolling Stones (1998);
37. see generally Paul A. Gilje, Rioting in America 20-59 (1996) (summarizing rioting and mob action).
38. See Larry D. Eldridge, A Distant Heritage: The Growth of Free Speech in Early America 20-41 (1994) (describing British and colonial seditious-libel policy leading up to, but preceding, the Revolutionary era and explaining that " [c]olonial seditious speech fell into three broad categories: insulting or impugning government officials, criticizing government generally, and spreading false news." ).
39. See, e.g., David Lowenthal, Present Dangers: Rediscovering the First Amendment xxiv (2002) (" liberty/license" distinction);
40. Andrew E. Taslitz, Slaves No More! The Implications of the Informed Citizen Ideal for Discovery before Fourth Amendment Suppression Hearings, 15 Ga. St. U. L. Rev. 709 (1999) (First Amendment/Fourth Amendment relationship);
41. Andrew E. Taslitz, Hate Crimes, Free Speech, and the Contract of Mutual Indifference, 80 B.U. L. Rev. 1283 (2000) (defending similar point with emphasis on the First Amendment implications).
42. Theophilus Parsons, Result of the Convention of Delegatee Holden at Ipswich in the County of Essex, in Popular Sources of Political Authority: Documents on the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780 341 (ed. Oscar Handlin and Mary Flug Handlin 1966).
43. 1 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 132-34, 142 (ed. Max Farrand, rev. ed. 1937 [reprinted 1966]).
44. Richard Maxwell Brown, Strains of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism 56 (1975);
45. see also Richard M. Brown, Violence and the American Revolution, in Essays on the American Revolution 103 (ed. Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Huston 1973).
46. See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution 232 (1967) (" 'Slavery' . . . [a]s the absolute political evil . . . appears in every statement of political principle, in every discussion of constitutionalism or legal rights, in every exhortation of resistance [in eighteenthcentury political discourse]." );
47. Barry Alan Shain, The Myth of American Individualism: The Protestant Origins of American Political Thought 200-05, 289-91, 295, 310-19 (1994). By " chattel slavery," I mean the American variant of an institution in which the slave is a nearly rightless " thing," the legal property of the master.
48. See, e.g., Robert L. Hayman Jr., The Smart Culture: Society, Intelligence, and the Law 41-42 (defining chattel slavery);
49. Thomas D. Morris, Southern Slavery and the Law 1619-1860 424-28 (1996) (defining slavery's specifically American features);
50. Liberty and Common-Sense (1760) letter 2, 11.
51. See Barbara J. Shapiro, Beyond Reasonable Doubt and Probable Cause: Historical Perspectives on the Anglo-American Law of Evidence 114 (1991).
52. See Andrew E. Taslitz & Margaret L. Paris, Constitutional Criminal Procedure 177-86 (2d ed. 2003) (modern concept).
53. 6 Writings of James Madison 375-76, 373, 380-81 (ed. Gaillard Hunt 1906) (source of quotations);
54. James R. Stoner Jr., Common Law Liberty: Rethinking American Constitutionalism 38-39 (2003).
55. See Thomas Y. Davies, Recovering the Original Fourth Amendment, 98 Mich. L. Rev. 547, at 679-81 (1999) [hereinafter Davies, Fourth Amendment];
56. The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and Origins 234-35 (ed. Neil H. Cogan 1997) [hereinafter Cogan, Complete Bill of Rights].
57. See also Andrew E. Taslitz, Peoplehood and the Fourth Amendment (draft 2006) (elaborating on the concept of " Peoplehood" ).
58. See Andrew E. Taslitz, The Inadequacies of Civil Society: Law's Complementary Role in Regulating Harmful Speech, 1 U. Md. L. J. of Race, Religion, Gender, & Class 305, 342-55 (2001) [hereinafter Taslitz, Civil Society].
59. The Federalist, Number 83, 563 (ed. J. Cooke 1961);
60. see also Bradford Wilson, The Fourth Amendment as More than a Form of Words: The View from the Founding, in The Bill of Rights: Original Meaning and Current Understanding 151, 158-59 (ed. Eugene W. Hickok Jr.) (similar interpretation of Hamilton's essay Number 83 in The Federalist).
61. See generally Andrew E. Taslitz, Stories of Fourth Amendment Disrespect: From Elian to the Internment, 70 Fordham L. Rev. 2257 (2002).
62. See Paul O. Carrese, The Cloaking of Power: Montesquieu, Blackstone, and the Rise of Judicial Activism 185-86, 197-98 (2003);
63. Alexander Hamilton et al., The Federalist Papers, Number 78, 392-99 (ed. Garry Wills 1982) (source of quotations).
64. See, e.g., Michael Kammen, Spheres of Liberty: Changing Perceptions of Liberty in American Culture 73 (1986);
65. Barry Alan Shain, The Myth of American Individualism: The Protestant Origins of American Political Thought 289-91 (1994);
66. Andrew E. Taslitz, Hate Crimes, Free Speech, and the Contract of Mutual Indifference, 80 B.U. L. Rev. 1283, 1312 (2000).
67. Virginia's governor, Edmund Randolph, arguing against the necessity for a Bill of Rights, expressed this sort of confidence in the judiciary, and in its unique role in a system of checks and balances, precisely in connection with constitutional protections against oppressive searches and seizures. See Samuel Dash, The Intruders: Unreasonable Searches and Seizures from King John to John Ashcroft 42 (2004); 3 The Debates on the Federal Constitution 468 (ed. Jonathan Elliot 1836).
68. See generally Erik Luna, Transparent Policing, 85 Iowa L. Rev. 1107 (2000).
69. See John Howe, Language and Political Meaning in Revolutionary America 5-8, 204-09 (2004).
70. See David C. Williams, The Mythic Meaning of the Second Amendment: Taming Political Violence in a Constitutional Republic 17-20 (2003) (quotations); Steven L. Winter, A Clearing in the Forest: Law, Life, and Mind 351 (2001) (analogous); Patricia J. Williams, Alchemical Notes: Reconstructing Ideals from Deconstructed Rights, 22 Harv. Civ. Rts.-Civ. Lib. L. Rev. 401, 430 (1987) (illustration); see Andrew E. Taslitz, Condemning the Racist Personality: Why the Critics of Hate Crimes Legislation Are Wrong, 40 B.C. L. Rev. 739, 780 (1999) (also citing additional sources).
71. Of course, subsequent history may require altering or adding to these lessons, as I have discussed elsewhere (see, e.g., Andrew E. Taslitz, Stories of Fourth Amendment Disrespect: From Elian to the Internment, 70 Fordham L. Rev. 257, 282-84 (2002)) and will discuss in greater detail in forthcoming works.
72. See Andrew E. Taslitz & Margaret L. Paris, Constitutional Criminal Procedure, 361-402 (2d ed. 2003) (defining administrative searches and reviewing the doctrine). Until recently, defining administrative searches and seizures as those done for purposes other than criminal investigation was completely accurate; the Court's recent subtle change in definition would not alter my reasoning but would unnecessarily complicate my explanation. See id. at 361-402; Andrew E. Taslitz, A Feminist Fourth Amendment? Consent, Care, Privacy, and Social Meaning in Ferguson v. Charleston, 9 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 1, 26-27 (2002) [hereinafter Taslitz, Feminist Fourth Amendment].
73. See Sara Ruddick, Maternal Thinking 17-18 (1995) (what it means to be a mother and "preservative love");
74. Edward J. Ingebetsen, At Stake: Monsters and the Rhetoric of Fear in Public Culture 1-17, 99-23 (2001) (defining "monstrosity" and explaining its connection to motherhood);
75. see also Joseph E. Kennedy, Monstrous Offenders and the Search for Solidarity through Criminal Punishment, 51 Hastings L.J. 829, 835-45, 858-68 (2000)
76. Iris Marion Young, Intersecting Voices: Dilemmas of Gender, Political Philosophy, and Policy 77-78 (1997).
77. See generally Andrew E. Taslitz, Racial Auditors and the Fourth Amendment: Data with the Power to Inspire Political Action, 66 L. & Contemp. Probs. 221 (2003);
78. Erik Luna, Constitutional Roadmaps, 90 J. Crim. L. Criminology 1125 (2000).
79. See also Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, Humboldt County, slip op. 2 (Breyer, J., dissenting) (on "strong dicta").
80. See Milton R. Konvitz, Fundamental Rights: History of a Constitutional Doctrine 70, 84 (2001).
81. Given space constraints, I have not here offered a detailed analysis of the Court's weak understanding of the connection between First and Fourth Amendment concerns, though I have begun that task elsewhere. See, e.g., Andrew E. Taslitz, Slaves No More! The Implications of the Informed Citizen Ideal before Fourth Amendment Suppression Hearings, 15 Ga. St. L. Rev. 709 (1999).
82. See, e.g., Peter Kolchin, American Slavery 1619-1877 92 (1993).
83. See Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery xiii, 3-22 (1996);
84. see generally Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South 46 (1982).
85. Thomas D. Morris, Southern Slavery and the Law 296-97 (1998);
86. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South 145 (1982) (quoting Frederick Douglass).
87. Oxford Companion to American Law 67 (ed. Kermit Hall 2002) (on Blackstone's Commentaries); Thomas D. Morris, Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619-1860 337 (1996) (on Blackstone's three most basic rights); 1 William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England 125, 130 (1765-69) (quotations); Thomas R. R. Cobb, An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery in the United States of America, to Which Is Prefixed an Historical Sketch of Slavery 105 (1858, reprinted 1968) (quotations).
88. Stephanie M. Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South 13, 15 (2004);
89. Charles Ball, Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball, a Black Man 125 (1859); Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk about Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Emancipation 282 (ed. Ira Berlin 1998) [hereinafter Berlin, Remembering Slavery] (quoting Fountain Hughes).
90. See Jenny Bourne Wahl, The Bondmen's Burden: An Economic Analysis of the Common Law of Southern Slavery 112-14 (1998).
91. George Teamoh, God Made Man, Man Made the Slave: The Autobiography of George Teamoh 176-76 n. 20 (ed. Nash Boney, Rafia Zafar, and Richard Hume 1990). 273-81 (1976) (slave marriage rituals detailed).
92. Peter Randolph, Sketches of Slave Life; or, Illustrations of the "Peculiar Institution" 58 (1855).
93. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and my Freedom 199 (ed. William L. Andrews 1987).
94. Moses Grandy, Narrative of the Life of Moses Grandy, Late a Slave in the United States of America 16 (1844).
95. R. J. M. Blackett, "Freemen to the Rescue!": Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, in Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory 133-34 (ed. David W. Blight 2004) (rising numbers of escaped slaves); Philip J. Schwarz, Slave Laws in Virginia 120-37 (1996) (Southern states' perception of the ineffectiveness of the 1793 federal Fugitive Slave Law and history of the Virginia example).
96. Kathryn Grover, The Fugitive's Gibraltar: Escaping Slaves and Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts 218 (2001).
97. See generally John Hope Franklin & Loren Schweninger, Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation 1-42 (1999) (summarizing many of the costs to masters of slave flight and lesser forms of slave resistance);
98. Ariela J. Gross, Double Character: Slavery and Mastery in the Antebellum Southern Courtroom 47-71, 73 (2000) (role of honor and dishonor generally in antebellum Southern slave law) ("From the perspective of honor culture, slaves' agency was threatening in its capacity to throw masters' honor into question.");
99. Andrew E. Taslitz, Slaves No More! The Implications of the Informed Citizen Ideal for Discovery before Fourth Amendment Suppression Hearings, 15 Ga. St. L. Rev. 709, 740-41 (1999) (Southern fears of slave flight, revolt, theft, and physical violence and the resulting cultural impact of these perceived challenges to white supremacy);
100. William A. Link, Roots of Secession: Slavery and Politics in Antebellum Virginia 99 (2003) (similar).
101. See Andrew E. Taslitz, Condemning the Racist Personality: Why the Critics of Hate Crimes Legislation Are Wrong, 40 B.C. L. Rev.
102. See Mitchell Snay, Gospel of Disunion: Religion and Separatism in the Antebellum South 9-11, 28-33 (1993); "Records of the Presbytery of Bethel, 1824-1849," Historical Foundation of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Montreat, North Carolina [hereinafter Montreat]; Richmond Enquirer, October 16, 1835.
103. James Henley Thornwell, The Rights and Duties of Masters 27-28 (1850);
104. John Patrick Daly, When Slavery Was Called Freedom: Evangelicalism, Proslavery, and the Causes of the Civil War 112-35 (2002) (discussing Thornwell and related authors equating slavery to Northern free labor or defending the former's superiority over the latter).
105. Paul Finkelman, The Centrality of Slavery in American Legal Development, in Slavery and the Law 3, 11 (ed. Paul Finkelman 1997);
106. William S. Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South 60 (1935) (quoting John Randolph);
107. Harvey Wish, George Fitzhugh: Propagandist of the Old South 96-98 (1943) ("sentimental language" quotation from John Henry Hammond);
108. George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South, or The Failure of Free Society 177-82 (1854);
109. see also Eugene D. Genovese, The World the Slaveholders Made (1969) (on the implications of Fitzhugh's thought).
110. James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders 143 (1998); Appendix, Cong. Globe, April 10, 1848, at 524, 526 (Virginia congressman); 4 Proceedings of the Virginia State Convention of 1861 385-87 (ed. George H. Reese 1965) (Alexander Stephens);
111. Samuel A. Cartwright, Report on the Diseases of and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race, 7 New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal 691-715 (May 1851), excerpts reprinted in Defending Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Old South, a Brief History with Documents 157, 172-73 (ed. Paul Finkelman 2003) [hereinafter Finkelman, Defending Slavery].
112. Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African-American Ideas about White People, 1830-1925 41-54, 65 (2000).
113. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States 1880-1917
114. Frederick Douglass, The Constitution of the United States: Is It Pro-Slavery or Antislavery? (T. Halifax and W. Birtwhistle 1860), excerpted in The Antislavery Argument 356 (ed. William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease 1965).
115. See, e.g., Edgar J. McManus, Black Bondage in the North 160-88 (1973) (summarizing gradual abolition laws in the North and their impact, including replacing bondage to individual masters with a kind of bondage to the white community as a whole via the ideology of white supremacy);
116. Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and "Race" in New England, 1780-1860 (1998) (linking gradualism in New England to a regional identity that marked blacks as dangerous outsiders to the community);
117. Michael Lind, What Lincoln Believed: The Values and Convictions of America's Greatest President 18, 107, 125-32, 150-51 (2005) 320 NOTES TO CHAPTER 8 (Northern opposition to slavery's spread); Andrew E. Taslitz, Hate Crimes, Free Speech, and the Contract of Mutual Indifference, 80 B.U. L. Rev. 1283, 1311, 1370-71 (2000) (arguments that slavery was at least the temporary price of union, plus Northern commercial ties to the South and other reasons for Northern opposition to the immediatism of the abolitionists);
118. Paul Finkelman, Chief Justice Hornblower of New Jersey and the Fugitive Slave Laws of 1793, in Slavery and the Law 113, 115 (ed. Paul Finkelman 1997) ("New Jersey was home to some blacks still in servitude when the Civil War began."). 1836) (unreported decision, New Jersey State Archives, Helmsley Case File, under Nathan, Alias Alex. Helmsley v. State).
119. R. J. M. Blackett, "Freemen to the Rescue!": Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, in Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory 133, 136-38 (ed. David W. Blight 2004).
120. Frank A. Rolling, Life and Services of Martin Delaney 76 (1883, reprinted New York: Arno Press, 1969). For a different version of what Delaney said
121. see J. Ernest Wright, The Negro in Pittsburgh 65-66 (1937) (unpublished manuscript prepared for the Works Progress Administration).
122. See generally Michael S. Green, Freedom, Union, and Power: Lincoln and His Party during the Civil War 34 (2004) (free-labor ideology permeating Northern life);
123. James L. Huston, Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War (2003) (Northern property conceptions).
124. See Gabor S. Boritt, Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream 160-61, 180-81 (1994).
125. 3 The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (ed. Roy P. Basler 1953) [hereinafter Lincoln, Collected Works].
126. On family breakups, see generally Wilma A. Dunaway, The African-American Family in Slavery and Emancipation 18-83 (2003). On modern concepts of relational and family privacy
127. see Mary I. Coombs, Shared Privacy and the Fourth Amendment, or the Rights of Relationships, 75 Cal. L. Rev. 1593 (1987);
128. Doriane Lambelet Coleman, Storming the Castle to Save the Children: The Ironic Costs of a Child Welfare Exception to the Fourth Amendment, 47 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 413 (2005).
129. On the importance of group privacy-a concept too often ignored or minimized in Fourth Amendment commentary and jurisprudence, see Andrew E. Taslitz, The Fourth Amendment in the Twenty-First Century: Technology, Privacy, and Human Emotions, 65 L. & Contemp. Probs. 125, 158-69 (2002) [hereinafter Taslitz, Privacy and Human Emotions]. On inadequate emphasis given to freedom of movement
130. see Tracey Maclin, The Decline of the Right of Locomotion: The Fourth Amendment on the Streets, 75 Cornell L. Rev. 1258 (1990).
131. Lawrence Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace 152-53 (1999).
132. See David Delaney, Race, Place, and the Law 1836-1948 34 (1998).
133. Sharla M. Fett, Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations 87 (2002) (tight quarters);
134. Mark M. Smith, Listening to Nineteenth-Century America 82-83 (2001) (earth floors, windows, doors).
135. Richard Cordley, Pioneer Days in Kansas 52 (1903).
136. John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South 154, 164 (rev. and enlarged ed. 1979) (cabins no sanctuary from rape; trinkets; and preference for marrying abroad);
137. 2 The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography: South Carolina Narratives, pt. 2, 57, 65-66 (ed. George P. Rawick 1972) (quotations concerning Wash Evans) [hereinafter Rawick, American Slave];
138. Emily West, Chains of Love, Slave Couples in Antebellum South Carolina 129 (2004) (summarizing Wash Evans account).
139. See, e.g., Orin Kerr, Technology, Privacy, and the Courts: A Reply to Colb and Swire, 102 Mich. L. Rev. 933, 933-35 (2004) (courts still rely heavily on property concepts in determining what seem to be Fourth Amendment privacy issues);
140. Daniel Yeager, Search, Seizure, and the Positive Law: Expectations of Privacy outside the Fourth Amendment, 84 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 249 (1993) (extended examination of case law supporting a similar proposition). Support concerning the way analogous ideas played out in the antebellum era can be found in the remainder of this chapter.
141. Saidiya A. Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America 17-18 (1997).
142. John Rankin, Letters on American Slavery 56 (1837, reprinted by Negro Universities Press 1970).
143. See Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 223-24 (1885, reprinted by Barnes & Noble Books 2003);
144. John T. Noonan, Persons and Masks of the Law: Cardozo, Holmes, Jefferson, and Wythe as Makers of the Masks 11-12 (1976, paperback 2002).
145. See Mark V. Tushnet, The American Law of Slavery, 1810-1860 44-121 (1981);
146. Mark V. Tushnet, Slave Law in the American South: State v. Mann in History and Literature 48-50 (2003) ("sentiment" versus "economic maximization");
147. Ariela J. Gross, Double Character: Slavery and Mastery in the Antebellum Southern Courtroom 3 (2000) (examining "the paradoxes that arose from slaves' double identity as human subjects and the objects of property relations at one and the same time") (emphasis in original).
148. See Gregory S. Alexander, Commodity and Propriety: Competing Visions of Property in American Legal Thought, 1776-1970 211, 214 (1997).
149. James L. Huston, Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War 27-36 (2003) [hereinafter Huston, Value of the Union].
150. See Jon-Christian Suggs, Whispered Consolidations: Law and Narrative in African-American Life 27-29 (2000);
151. Harriet Brent Jacobs (Linda Brent); Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 6, 8, 78, 16, 56 (ed. L. Maria Child 1861, reprinted New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).
152. Nicholas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South 123-29, 149-53 (2002).
153. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government's Relations to Slavery 295-97 (2001);
154. Joseph Carlyle Sitterson, The Secession Movement in North Carolina 135 (1939) (a North Carolina editor).
155. See Anne Sarah Rubin, A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868 100-02 (2005);
156. Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War 77-80 (2001).
157. See Silvana R. Siddali, From Property to Person: Slavery and the Confiscation Acts, 1861-1862 2-3, 27-43 (2005).
158. Phillip Shaw Paludan, A People's Contest: The Union and Civil War, 1861-1865 213-14 (1996) (including "atrocity" quotation); 14 Atlantic Monthly 517 (October 1864).
159. See U.S. Const. amends. IV, XIV; Andrew E. Taslitz & Margaret L. Paris, Constitutional Criminal Procedure 39-40 (2d ed. 2003) (incorporation doctrine);
160. Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction 163-214 (1998) (textual and historical analysis demonstrating an intention to incorporate the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights via the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges and Immunities Clause).
161. But see George C. Thomas III, When Constitutional Worlds Collide: Resurrecting the Framers' Bill of Rights and Criminal Procedure, 100 Mich. L. Rev. 145 (2001) (arguing against the dominant incorporationist position but recognizing a role for history that could still support a non-incorporationist variant of my position).
162. See Earl M. Maltz, The Fourteenth Amendment and the Law of the Constitution 3-9 (2003) [hereinafter Maltz, Fourteenth Amendment].
163. See Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s-1880s 198-201 (2001).
164. In addition to the preceding discussion in this chapter, see Andrew E. Taslitz, Hate Crimes, Free Speech, and the Contract of Mutual Indifference, 80 B.U. L. Rev. 1283, 1343-47, 1368-90 (2000) (Slave Power, suppression of free speech, Black Codes);
165. Andrew E. Taslitz, Slaves No More! The Implications of Informed Citizen Ideology for Discovery before Fourth Amendment Suppression Hearings, 15 Ga. St. U. L. Rev. 709, 738-56 (1999) (search and seizure and racial dominance);
166. Andrew E. Taslitz, Condemning the Racist Personality: Why the Critics of Hate Crimes Legislation Are Wrong, 40 B.C. L. Rev. 739, 765-77 (1999) (legal and extralegal violence).
167. See Andrew E. Taslitz, Racial Profiling, Terrorism, and Time, 109 Penn. St. L. Rev. 1181 (2005) (illustrating the applications of a Reconstruction-informed Fourth Amendment to the modern problem of racial profiling).
168. Andrew E. Taslitz, Respect and the Fourth Amendment, 94 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 15 (2003) [hereinafter Taslitz, Respect].
169. See, e.g., George Dix, Fourth Amendment Federalism: The Potential Requirement of State Law Authorization for Law Enforcement Activity, 14 Am. J. Crim. L. 1 (1987).
170. See Tracey Maclin, The Central Meaning of the Fourth Amendment, 35 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 197, 237, 239 (1993);
171. Tracey Maclin, The Complexity of the Fourth Amendment: A Historical Review, 77 B.U. L. Rev. 925 (1997);
172. Nadine Strossen, Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz: A Roadblock to Meaningful Judicial Enforcement of Constitutional Rights, 42 Hastings L. Rev. 285, 288 (1991).
173. See James D. Zirin, Judges Who Dip into Politics, N.Y. Times, July 16, 1996, at A1;
174. Senator Robert Dole, Luncheon Address at American Society of Newspaper Editors (March 21, 1997), http://www.asne.org/kiosk/ archive/convention/conv96/dole.htm;
175. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Press Briefing by Mike McCurry (March 21, 1996), http://clinton6.nara.gov/1996/03/1996-03-21-press-briefing-by-mikemccurry. html;
176. National Drug Strategy Network, NewsBriefs, Judge Cites Police Abuse and Corruption, Throws Out Seized Drug Evidence and Confession, Incites Controversy about the Exclusionary Rule (March 1996), http:// www.ndsn.org/march96/baer.html;
177. National Drug Strategy Network, NewsBriefs: New York Federal Judge Reverses Decision in Controversial Drug Case; Clinton, Dole Had Threatened to Ask for Resignation, Impeachment (April 1996) [hereinafter New York Federal Judge Reverses Decision], http://www.ndsn.org/april96/bayless. html;
178. Bruce Fein, Not for the Thin-Skinned: Scathing Criticism of Federal Judges Is Constructive, Legal Times, May 13, 1996 at 22;
179. Liberal Judgments, Transcript, Online Newshour (April 2, 1996), http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/baer1_4-02.html.
180. See David Cole, When Running Is Reasonable; Police Brutality in High-Crime Neighborhoods, Legal Times, March 4, 1996, at 20 (summarizing Judge Baer's background).
181. See Andrew E. Taslitz & Margaret L. Paris, Constitutional Criminal Procedure 340-42 (2d ed. 2003); Bayless, 913 F. Supp. at 240.
182. On the tension between group and individualized justice, see Andrew E. Taslitz, Condemning the Racist Personality: Why the Critics of Hate Crimes Legislation Are Wrong, 40 B.C. L. Rev. 739, 746-65 (1999) [hereinafter Taslitz, Racist Personality];
183. see also Omar Saleem, The Age of Unreason: The Impact of Reasonableness, Increased Police Force, and Colorblindness on Terry "Stop and Frisk," 50 Okla. L. Rev. 451, 453 (1997).
184. On racial profiling, see generally David A. Harris, "Driving While Black" and All Other Traffic Offenses: The Supreme Court and Pretextual Traffic Stops, 87 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 544 (1997);
185. Katheryn K. Russell, "Driving While Black": Corollary Phenomena and Collateral Consequences, 40 B.C. L. Rev. 717 (1999).On the emotional and political impact of silencing dissenting perspectives
186. see Andrew E. Taslitz, Rape and the Culture of the Courtroom 134-48 (1999).
187. See generally Andrew E. Taslitz, The Fourth Amendment in the Twenty-First Century: Technology, Privacy, and Human Emotions, 65 L. & Contemp. Probs. 125, 125-50 (2002).
188. See Bernard E. Harcourt, Illusion of Order: The False Promise of Broken Windows Policing 23-55, 127-59, 163 (2001) (defining, illustrating, and critiquing the "broken windows" and related "ordermaintenance" approaches to policing). For a critique of these sorts of policing techniques as a pretense for controlling the poorest, weakest members of our society, see Zero Tolerance: Quality of Life and the New Police Brutality in New York City (ed. Andrea McArdle and Tanya Erzen 2001) [hereinafter McArdle & Erzen, Zero Tolerance].
189. See also William J. Stuntz, The Distribution of Fourth Amendment Privacy, 67 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1265, 1266-67 (1999).
190. David A. Harris, Back to the Future: Are Technologically Assisted Searches a Way to Achieve Better Police/Minority Relations? 4-9 (describing the technology), 12 (nonsearches) (unpublished manuscript).
191. See Matt Richtel, To One Judge, Cybermonitors Bring Uneasy Memories, N.Y. Times, August 18, 2001, at A7.
192. Cf. Robert Post, Constitutional Domains: Democracy, Community, Management 236 (1995) (arguing for greater governmental authority to limit speech when the state acts in the "managerial sphere");
193. Andrew E. Taslitz & Sharon Styles-Anderson, Still Officers of the Court: Why the First Amendment Is No Bar to Challenging Racism, Sexism and Ethnic Bias in the Legal Profession, 9 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 781, 811-812 (1996) (illustrating the application of the "managerial sphere" to the regulation of lawyers' speech in professional contexts).