Saturated fat, carbohydrates and cardiovascular disease

Netherlands Journal of Medicine

Volumn 69, Issue 9, 2011, Pages 372-378

  Kuipers, R S ^a   de Graaf, D J ^a   Luxwolda, M F ^a   Muskiet, M H A ^b   Dijck Brouwer, D A J ^a   Muskiet, F A J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^b VU UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Carbohydrates; Cardiovascular disease; Diet heart; Fat; Saturated fatty acids

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; CHOLESTEROL; LINOLEIC ACID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; SATURATED FATTY ACID; TRANS FATTY ACID;

CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GLYCEMIC INDEX; HUMAN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIPOGENESIS; LIVER METABOLISM; LOW FAT DIET; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY FATS; DIETARY FATS, UNSATURATED; FATS, UNSATURATED; FATTY ACIDS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; LIPOPROTEINS, LDL;

EID: 80054697761     PISSN: 03002977     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. Hulshof KFAM, Ocké MC, van Rossum CTM. Resultaten van de Voedselconsumptiepeiling 2003. 2004;RIVM rapport nr 350030002/2004;TNO rapport nr V6000.
2. Hulshof KFAM, Ocké MC. Voedselconsumptiepeilingen 2003: onderzoek bij jongvolwassen Nederlanders. Focus op macrovoedingsstoffen. Ned Tijdschr Klin Chem Labgeneesk. 2005;30:185-91.
3. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. Available at: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/html/chapter6.htm#table10, 11 June 2011.
4. Keys AB. Seven countries: a multivariate analysis of death and coronary heart disease. London, England: Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts; 1980.
5. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, et al. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:1146-55.
6. Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, et al. Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies. BMJ. 1997;314:112-7.
7. Frantz ID Jr, Dawson EA, Ashman PL, et al. Test of effect of lipid lowering by diet on cardiovascular risk. The Minnesota Coronary Survey. Arteriosclerosis. 1989;9:129-35.
8. Mann GV, Shaffer RD, Rich A. Physical fitness and immunity to heart-disease in Masai. Lancet. 1965;2:1308-10.
9. Ravnskov U. A hypothesis out-of-date. the diet-heart idea. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002;55:1057-63.
10. Weinberg SL. The diet-heart hypothesis: a critique. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:731-3.
11. Shaper AG, Leonard PJ, Jones KW, et al. Environmental effects on the body build, blood pressure and blood chemistry of nomadic warriors serving in the army in Kenya. East Afr Med J. 1969;46:282-9.
12. Prospective Studies Collaboration, Lewington S, Whitlock G, et al. Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths. Lancet. 2007;370:1829-39.
13. Stampfer MJ, Sacks FM, Salvini S, et al. A prospective study of cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:373-81.
14. Reaven GM. The insulin resistance syndrome: definition and dietary approaches to treatment. Annu Rev Nutr. 2005;25:391-406.
15. Feinman RD, Volek JS. Low carbohydrate diets improve atherogenic dyslipidemia even in the absence of weight loss. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2006;3:24.
16. Adiels M, Olofsson SO, Taskinen MR, et al. Overproduction of very low-density lipoproteins is the hallmark of the dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1225-36.
17. Verhoye E, Langlois MR, Asklepios Investigators. Circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein: a biomarker of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk? Clin Chem Lab Med. 2009;47:128-37.
18. Henriksen T, Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of biologically modified low density lipoprotein. Arteriosclerosis. 1983;3:149-59.
19. Richtlijnen goede voeding 2006. 2006; Publicatie nr 2006/21.
20. Richtlijnen goede voeding 2006-achtergronddocument. 2006; Publicatie nr A06/08.
21. Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, et al. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:535-46.
22. Scarborough P, Rayner M, van Dis I, et al. Meta-analysis of effect of saturated fat intake on cardiovascular disease: overadjustment obscures true associations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:458,9; author reply 459.
23. Soedamah-Muthu SS, Ding EL, Al-Delaimy WK, et al. Milk and dairy consumption and incidence of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:158-71.
24. Goldbohm RA, Chorus AM, Galindo Garre F, et al. Dairy consumption and 10-y total and cardiovascular mortality: a prospective cohort study in the Netherlands. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:615-27.
25. Jakobsen MU, O'Reilly EJ, Heitmann BL, et al. Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1425-32.
26. Jakobsen MU, Dethlefsen C, Joensen AM, et al. Intake of carbohydrates compared with intake of saturated fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction: importance of the glycemic index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1764-8.
27. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99:779-85.
28. Astrup A, Dyerberg J, Elwood P, et al. The role of reducing intakes of saturated fat in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where does the evidence stand in 2010? Am J Clin Nutr. 2011:684-8.
29. Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S. Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000252.
30. Micha R, Mozaffarian D. Saturated fat and cardiometabolic risk factors, coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes: a fresh look at the evidence. Lipids. 2010;45:893-905.
31. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, et al. Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation. 2009;119:902-7.
32. Calder PC, Dangour AD, Diekman C, et al. Essential fats for future health. Proceedings of the 9th Unilever Nutrition Symposium, 26-27 May 2010. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64 Suppl 4:S1-13.
33. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, et al. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1601-13.
34. Ramsden CE, Hibbeln JR, Majchrzak SF, et al. n-6 fatty acid-specific and mixed polyunsaturate dietary interventions have different effects on CHD risk: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:1586-600.
35. Biss K, Ho KJ, Mikkelson B, et al. Some unique biologic characteristics of the Masai of East Africa. N Engl J Med. 1971;284:694-9.
36. Ho KJ, Biss K, Mikkelson B, et al. The Masai of East Africa: some unique biological characteristics. Arch Pathol. 1971;91:387-410.
37. Kreijl C.F. van, Knaap A.G.A.C. Ons eten gemeten-Gezonde voeding en veilig voedsel in Nederland. 2004;RIVM rapport nr 270555007.
38. Peeters A, Nusselder WJ, Stevenson C, et al. Age-specific trends in cardiovascular mortality rates in the Netherlands between 1980 and 2009. Eur J Epidemiol. 2011:369-73.
39. Scarborough P, Noaham KE, Clarke D, et al. Modelling the impact of a healthy diet on cardiovascular disease and cancer mortality. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2010. Epub ahead of print.
40. Kokkinos P, Myers J. Exercise and physical activity: clinical outcomes and applications. Circulation. 2010;122:1637-48.
41. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation. 2010;121:1356-64.
42. Hu FB. Are refined carbohydrates worse than saturated fat? Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1541-2.
43. Ridker PM. Establishing a clinical basis for hsCRP in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Clin Chem. 2010;56:1186-7.
44. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195-207.
45. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group, Jonathan E, Derrick B, et al. C-reactive protein concentration and the vascular benefits of statin therapy: an analysis of 20,536 patients in the Heart Protection Study. Lancet. 2011;377:469-76.
46. Despres JP. CRP: star trekking the galaxy of risk markers. Lancet 2011;377:441-2.
47. O'Keefe JH, Carter MD, Lavie CJ, et al. The gravity of JUPITER (Justification for the Use of Statins in Primary Prevention: An Intervention Trial Evaluating Rosuvastatin). Postgrad Med. 2009;121:113-8.
48. Rauchhaus M, Coats AJ, Anker SD. The endotoxin-lipoprotein hypothesis. Lancet 2000;356:930-3.
49. Egger G, Dixon J. Inflammatory effects of nutritional stimuli: further support for the need for a big picture approach to tackling obesity and chronic disease. Obes Rev. 2010;11:137-49.
50. Pijl H. Obesity: evolution of a symptom of affluence. Neth J Med. 2011;69:159-66.
51. Serlie MJ, La Fleur SE, Fliers E. Obesity: is evolution to blame? Neth J Med. 2011;69:156-8.
52. Willett WC. Balancing life-style and genomics research for disease prevention. Science. 2002;296:695-8.
53. Hemminki K, Lorenzo Bermejo J, Forsti A. The balance between heritable and environmental aetiology of human disease. Nat Rev Genet. 2006;7:958-65.
54. Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature. 2006;444:860-7.
55. Straub RH, Cutolo M, Buttgereit F, et al. Energy regulation and neuroendocrine-immune control in chronic inflammatory diseases. J Intern Med. 2010;267:543-60.
56. Straub RH. Concepts of evolutionary medicine and energy regulation contribute to the etiology of systemic chronic inflammatory diseases. Brain Behav Immun. 2011;25:1-5.
57. Netea MG, Demacker PN, Kullberg BJ, et al. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice are protected against lethal endotoxemia and severe gram-negative infections. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:1366-72.
58. van Leeuwen HJ, van Beek AP, Dallinga-Thie GM, et al. The role of high density lipoprotein in sepsis. Neth J Med. 2001;59:102-10.
59. Hudgins LC, Parker TS, Levine DM, et al. A single intravenous dose of endotoxin rapidly alters serum lipoproteins and lipid transfer proteins in normal volunteers. J Lipid Res. 2003;44:1489-98.
60. Van Amersfoort ES, Van Berkel TJ, Kuiper J. Receptors, mediators, and mechanisms involved in bacterial sepsis and septic shock. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2003;16:379-414.
61. van Leeuwen HJ, Heezius EC, Dallinga GM, et al. Lipoprotein metabolism in patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1359-66.
62. Khovidhunkit W, Kim MS, Memon RA, et al. Effects of infection and inflammation on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism: mechanisms and consequences to the host. J Lipid Res. 2004;45:1169-96.
63. Murch O, Collin M, Hinds CJ, et al. Lipoproteins in inflammation and sepsis. I. Basic science. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:13-24.
64. Wendel M, Paul R, Heller AR. Lipoproteins in inflammation and sepsis. II. Clinical aspects. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:25-35.
65. Feingold KR, Grunfeld C. The role of HDL in innate immunity. J Lipid Res. 2011;52:1-3.
66. Feingold KR, Grunfeld C. The acute phase response inhibits reverse cholesterol transport. J Lipid Res. 2010;51:682-4.
67. Chait A, Kim F. Saturated fatty acids and inflammation: who pays the toll? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30:692-3.
68. Schwartz EA, Zhang WY, Karnik SK, et al. Nutrient modification of the innate immune response: a novel mechanism by which saturated fatty acids greatly amplify monocyte inflammation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30:802-8.
69. Kitchens RL, Thompson PA, Munford RS, et al. Acute inflammation and infection maintain circulating phospholipid levels and enhance lipopolysaccharide binding to plasma lipoproteins. J Lipid Res. 2003;44:2339-48.
70. Solano MP, Goldberg RB. Management of dyslipidemia in diabetes. Cardiol Rev. 2006;14:125-35.
71. Lee JY, Zhao L, Hwang DH. Modulation of pattern recognition receptormediated inflammation and risk of chronic diseases by dietary fatty acids. Nutr Rev. 2010;68:38-61.
72. Hudgins LC, Hellerstein MK, Seidman CE, et al. Relationship between carbohydrate-induced hypertriglyceridemia and fatty acid synthesis in lean and obese subjects. J Lipid Res. 2000;41:595-604.
73. Forsythe CE, Phinney SD, Fernandez ML, et al. Comparison of low fat and low carbohydrate diets on circulating fatty acid composition and markers of inflammation. Lipids. 2008;43:65-77.
74. Volek JS, Ballard KD, Silvestre R, et al. Effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction versus low-fat diet on flow-mediated dilation. Metabolism. 2009;58:1769-77.
75. Volek JS, Phinney SD, Forsythe CE, et al. Carbohydrate restriction has a more favorable impact on the metabolic syndrome than a low fat diet. Lipids. 2009;44:297-309.
76. Forsythe CE, Phinney SD, Feinman RD, et al. Limited effect of dietary saturated fat on plasma saturated fat in the context of a low carbohydrate diet. Lipids. 2010;45:947-62.
77. Donnelly KL, Smith CI, Schwarzenberg SJ, et al. Sources of fatty acids stored in liver and secreted via lipoproteins in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:1343-51.
78. Leclercq IA, Horsmans Y. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: the potential role of nutritional management. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11:766-73.