Sporothrix schenckii and sporotrichosis

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 354-633

  de Lima Barros, Mônica Bastos ^a   de Almeida Paes, Rodrigo ^a   Schubach, Armando Oliveira ^a  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF RIO DE JANEIRO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; CASPOFUNGIN; FLUCYTOSINE; ITRACONAZOLE; MELANIN; MICAFUNGIN; POSACONAZOLE; RAVUCONAZOLE; TERBINAFINE; VORICONAZOLE;

ANTIBODY DETECTION; ANTIFUNGAL SUSCEPTIBILITY; CAT DISEASE; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; FUNGAL CELL; FUNGAL DETECTION; FUNGAL STRAIN; FUNGAL VIRULENCE; HEAT TOLERANCE; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; INNATE IMMUNITY; NONHUMAN; NOTE; PATHOGENESIS; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; SKIN INFECTION; SKIN TEST; SPOROTHRIX SCHENCKII; SPOROTRICHOSIS; ANIMAL; CAT; MICROBIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SPOROTHRIX;

SPOROTHRIX SCHENCKII;

ANIMALS; CATS; HUMANS; SPOROTHRIX; SPOROTRICHOSIS;

EID: 80053608918     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00007-11     Document Type: Note

References (270)

1. Ahearn, D. G., and W. Kaplan. 1969. Occurrence of Sporotrichum schenckii on a cold-stored meat product. Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:116-124.
2. Albornoz, M. B., E. Villanueva, and E. D. Torres. 1984. Application of immunoprecipitation techniques to the diagnosis of cutaneous and extracutaneous forms of sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 85:177-183.
3. Albuquerque, P. C., et al. 2008. Vesicular transport in Histoplasma capsulatum: an effective mechanism for trans-cell wall transfer of proteins and lipids in ascomycetes. Cell. Microbiol. 10:1695-1710.
4. Almeida, H. L., Jr, C. B. Lettnin, J. L. Barbosa, and M. C. Dias. 2009. Spontaneous resolution of zoonotic sporotrichosis during pregnancy. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 51:237-238.
5. Almeida-Paes, R., et al. 2009. Growth conditions influence melanization of Brazilian clinical Sporothrix schenckii isolates. Microbes Infect. 11:554-562.
6. Almeida-Paes, R., M. A. Pimenta, P. C. Monteiro, J. D. Nosanchuk, and R. M. Zancope-Oliveira. 2007. Immunoglobulins G, M, and A against Sporothrix schenckii exoantigens in patients with sporotrichosis before and during treatment with itraconazole. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 14:1149-1157.
7. Almeida-Paes, R., et al. 2007. Use of mycelial-phase Sporothrix schenckii exoantigens in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of sporotrichosis by antibody detection. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 14:244-249.
8. Al-Tawfiq, J. A., and K. K. Wools. 1998. Disseminated sporotrichosis and Sporothrix schenckii fungemia as the initial presentation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26:1403-1406.
9. Alvarado-Ramirez, E., and J. M. Torres-Rodriguez. 2007. In vitro susceptibility of Sporothrix schenckii to six antifungal agents determined using three different methods. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51:2420-2423.
10. Alves, S. H., et al. 2010. Sporothrix schenckii associated with armadillo hunting in Southern Brazil: epidemiological and antifungal susceptibility profiles. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 43:523-525.
11. Appenzeller, S., et al. 2006. Sporothrix schenckii infection presented as monoarthritis: report of two cases and review of the literature. Clin. Rheumatol. 25:926-928.
12. Area-Leão, A. E., and M. Goto. 1946. Esporotricose. Observac ̧ão e estudo de um novo caso. Hospital 30:409-417.
13. Arenas, R., D. Miller, and P. Campos-Macias. 2007. Epidemiological data and molecular characterization (mtDNA) of Sporothrix schenckii in 13 cases from Mexico. Int. J. Dermatol. 46:177-179.
14. Arrillaga-Moncrieff, I., et al. 2009. Different virulence levels of the species of Sporothrix in a murine model. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 15:651-655.
15. Barba Borrego, J. A., J. Mayorga, and V. M. Tarango-Martinez. 2009. Esporotricosis linfangitica bilateral y simultanea. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 26:247-249.
16. Barros, M. B., et al. 2008. Endemic of zoonotic sporotrichosis: profile of cases in children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27:246-250.
17. Barros, M. B. L., A. O. Schubach, A. C. do Valle, et al. 2004. Cat-transmitted sporotrichosis epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: description of a series of cases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38:529-535.
18. Barros, M. B. L., A. O. Schubach, T. M. Schubach, B. Wanke, and S. R. Lambert-Passos. 2008. An epidemic of sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: epidemiological aspects of a series of cases. Epidemiol. Infect. 136: 1192-1196.
19. Barros, M. B. L., et al. 2010. Esporotricose: a evoluc ̧ão e os desafios de uma epidemia. Rev. Panam. Salud Publ. 27:455-460.
20. Barros, M. B. L., et al. 2003. Sporotrichosis with widespread cutaneous lesions: report of 24 cases related to transmission by domestic cats in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Int. J. Dermatol. 42:677-681.
21. Barros, M. B. L., A. Schubach, A. C. Francesconi-do-Valle, et al. 2005. Positive Montenegro skin test among patients with sporotrichosis in Rio De Janeiro. Acta Trop. 93:41-47.
22. Berbee, M. L., and J. W. Taylor. 1992. Convergence in ascospore discharge mechanism among pyrenomycete fungi based on 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1:59-71.
23. Bernardes-Engemann, A. R., et al. 2005. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the serodiagnosis of several clinical forms of sporotrichosis. Med. Mycol. 43:487-493.
24. Bernardes-Engemann, A. R., et al. 2009. A comparative serological study of the SsCBF antigenic fraction isolated from three Sporothrix schenckii strains. Med. Mycol. 47:874-878.
25. Betancourt, S., L. J. Torres-Bauza, and N. Rodriguez-Del Valle. 1985. Molecular and cellular events during the yeast to mycelium transition in Sporothrix schenckii. Sabouraudia 23:207-218.
26. Blumer, S. O., L. Kaufman, W. Kaplan, D. W. McLaughlin, and D. E. Kraft. 1973. Comparative evaluation of five serological methods for the diagnosis of sporotrichosis. Appl. Microbiol. 26:4-8.
27. Bonifaz, A., L. Fierro, A. Saul, and R. M. Ponce. 2008. Cutaneous sporotrichosis. Intermittent treatment (pulses) with itraconazole. Eur. J. Dermatol. 18:61-64.
28. Bonifaz, A., et al. 2007. Sporotrichosis in childhood: clinical and therapeutic experience in 25 patients. Pediatr. Dermatol. 24:369-372.
29. Brito, M. M., et al. 2007. Comparison of virulence of different Sporothrix schenckii clinical isolates using experimental murine model. Med. Mycol. 45:721-729.
30. Bustamante, B., and P. E. Campos. 2001. Endemic sporotrichosis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 14:145-149.
31. Callens, S. F., et al. 2006. Pulmonary Sporothrix schenckii infection in a HIV positive child. J. Trop. Pediatr. 52:144-146.
32. Carlos, I. Z., M. F. Sassa, D. B. da Graca Sgarbi, M. C. Placeres, and D. C. Maia. 2009. Current research on the immune response to experimental sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 168:1-10.
33. Carlos, I. Z., D. B. Sgarbi, J. Angluster, C. S. Alviano, and C. L. Silva. 1992. Detection of cellular immunity with the soluble antigen of the fungus Sporothrix schenckii in the systemic form of the disease. Mycopathologia 117:139-144.
34. Carlos, I. Z., D. B. Sgarbi, and M. C. Placeres. 1998. Host organism defense by a peptide-polysaccharide extracted from the fungus Sporothrix schenckii. Mycopathologia 144:9-14.
35. Carlos, I. Z., D. B. Sgarbi, G. C. Santos, and M. C. Placeres. 2003. Sporothrix schenckii lipid inhibits macrophage phagocytosis: involvement of nitric oxide and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Scand. J. Immunol. 57:214-220.
36. Carlos, I. Z., et al. 1994. Disturbances in the production of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor in disseminated murine sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 127:189-194.
37. Carmichael, J. W. 1962. Chrysosporium and some other aleuriosporic Hyphomycetes. Can. J. Bot. 40:1137-1173.
38. Carvalho, L. P., et al. 2007. Differential immune regulation of activated T cells between cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis as a model for pathogenesis. Parasite Immunol. 29:251-258.
39. Carvalho, M. T., et al. 2002. Disseminated cutaneous sporotrichosis in a patient with AIDS: report of a case. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 35:655-659.
40. Casadevall, A. 2006. Cards of virulence and the global virulome for humans. Microbe 1:359-364.
41. Casserone, S., I. A. Conti-Diaz, E. Zanetta, and M. E. P. Pereira. 1983. Serologia de la esporotricosis cutânea. Sabouraudia 21:317-321.
42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1988. Multistate outbreak of sporotrichosis in seedling handlers. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 37:652-653.
43. Chapman, S. W., et al. 2004. Comparative evaluation of the efficacy and safety of two doses of terbinafine (500 and 1000 mg day(1)) in the treatment of cutaneous or lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis. Mycoses 47: 62-68.
44. Chua, S. S., M. Momany, L. Mendoza, and P. J. Szaniszlo. 1994. Identification of three chitin synthase genes in the dimorphic fungal pathogen Sporothrix schenckii. Curr. Microbiol. 29:151-156.
45. Civila, E. S., J. Bonasse, I. A. Conti-Diaz, and R. A. Vignale. 2004. Importance of the direct fresh examination in the diagnosis of cutaneous sporotrichosis. Int. J. Dermatol. 43:808-810.
46. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 2008. Reference method for broth dillution antifungal susceptibility testing of filamentous fungi; approved standard, 2nd ed. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA.
47. Conti Diaz, I. A. 1989. Epidemiology of sporotrichosis in Latin America. Mycopathologia 108:113-116.
48. Cooper, C. R., D. M. Dixon, and I. F. Salkin. 1992. Laboratory-acquired sporotrichosis. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 30:169-171.
49. Criseo, G., G. Malara, O. Romeo, and A. Puglisi Guerra. 2008. Lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis in an immunocompetent patient: a case report from extreme southern Italy. Mycopathologia 166:159-162.
50. Crothers, S. L., S. D. White, P. J. Ihrke, and V. K. Affolter. 2009. Sporotrichosis: a retrospective evaluation of 23 cases seen in northern California (1987-2007). Vet. Dermatol. 20:249-259.
51. De Beurmann, L., and H. Gougerot. 1912. Les sporotrichoses. Librarie Félix Alcan, Paris, France.
52. De Beurmann, L., H. Gougerot, and A. B. Vaucher. 1909. Sporotichoses cutanées du chat. C. R. Soc. Biol. 66:370-372.
53. de Hoog, G. S., and J. Guarro. 1995. Atlas of clinical fungi. Centraalbureau voor Shimmelcultures, Baarn and Delft, The Netherlands.
54. de Hoog, G. S., and R. G. Vitale. 2007. Bipolaris, Exophiala, Scedosporium, Sporothrix and other dematiaceous fungi, p. 1898-1917. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. L. Landry, and M. A. Pfaller (ed.), Manual of clinical microbiology, 9th ed., vol. 2. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
55. de Lima Barros, M. B., et al. 2011. Treatment of cutaneous sporotrichosis with itraconazole-study of 645 patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 52:e200-e206.
56. de Meyer, E. M., et al. 2008. Taxonomy and phylogeny of new wood- and soil-inhabiting Sporothrix species in the Ophiostoma stenoceras-Sporothrix schenckii complex. Mycologia 100:647-661.
57. de Miranda, L. H., L. P. Quintella, I. B. dos Santos, et al. 2009. Histopathology of canine sporotrichosis: a morphological study of 86 cases from Rio de Janeiro (2001-2007). Mycopathologia 168:79-87.
58. DiNubile, M. J. 2008. Nodular lymphangitis: a distinctive clinical entity with finite etiologies. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 10:404-410.
59. Dixon, D. M., R. A. Duncan, and N. J. Hurd. 1992. Use of a mouse model to evaluate clinical and environmental isolates of Sporothrix spp. from the largest U.S. epidemic of sporotrichosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:951-954.
60. Dixon, D. M., et al. 1991. Isolation and characterization of Sporothrix schenckii from clinical and environmental sources associated with the largest U.S. epidemic of sporotrichosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:1106-1113.
61. Dunstan, R. W., R. F. Langham, K. A. Reimann, and P. S. Wakenell. 1986. Feline sporotrichosis: a report of five cases with transmission to humans. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 15:37-45.
62. Engle, J., J. Desir, and J. M. Bernstein. 2007. A rose by any other name. Skinmed 6:139-141.
63. Espinel-Ingroff, A., et al. 1995. Comparative and collaborative evaluation of standardization of antifungal susceptibility testing for filamentous fungi. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:314-319.
64. Feeney, K. T., I. H. Arthur, A. J. Whittle, S. A. Altman, and D. J. Speers. 2007. Outbreak of sporotrichosis, Western Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13:1228-1231.
65. Fernandes, G. F., et al. 2011. Serodiagnosis of sporotrichosis infection in cats by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a specific antigen, SsCBF, and crude exoantigens. Vet. Microbiol. 147:445-449.
66. Fernandes, K. S., A. L. Coelho, L. M. Lopes Bezerra, and C. Barja-Fidalgo. 2000. Virulence of Sporothrix schenckii conidia and yeast cells, and their susceptibility to nitric oxide. Immunology 101:563-569.
67. Fernandes, K. S., H. L. Mathews, and L. M. Lopes Bezerra. 1999. Differences in virulence of Sporothrix schenckii conidia related to culture conditions and cell-wall components. J. Med. Microbiol. 48:195-203.
68. Fernandes, K. S., et al. 2008. Detrimental role of endogenous nitric oxide in host defence against Sporothrix schenckii. Immunology 123:469-479.
69. Figueiredo, C. C., O. C. De Lima, L. De Carvalho, L. M. Lopes-Bezerra, and V. Morandi. 2004. The in vitro interaction of Sporothrix schenckii with human endothelial cells is modulated by cytokines and involves endothelial surface molecules. Microb. Pathog. 36:177-188.
70. Figueiredo, C. C., P. M. Deccache, L. M. Lopes-Bezerra, and V. Morandi. 2007. TGF-beta1 induces transendothelial migration of the pathogenic fungus Sporothrix schenckii by a paracellular route involving extracellular matrix proteins. Microbiology 153:2910-2921.
71. Flournoy, D. J., J. B. Mullins, and R. J. McNeal. 2000. Isolation of fungi from rose bush thorns. J. Okla. State Med. Assoc. 93:271-274.
72. Fonseca-Reyes, S., et al. 2007. Extracutaneous sporotrichosis in a patient with liver cirrhosis. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 24:41-43.
73. Francesconi, G., A. C. Francesconi do Valle, et al. 2011. Comparative study of 250 mg/day terbinafine and 100 mg/day itraconazole for the treatment of cutaneous sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 171:349-354.
74. Francesconi, G., A. C. Valle, S. Passos, R. Reis, and M. C. Galhardo. 2009. Terbinafine (250 mg/day): an effective and safe treatment of cutaneous sporotrichosis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 23:1273-1276.
75. Fujii, H., et al. 2008. A case of atypical sporotrichosis with multifocal cutaneous ulcers. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 33:135-138.
76. Galhardo, M. C., et al. 2010. Sporothrix schenckii meningitis in AIDS during immune reconstitution syndrome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psych. 81:696-699.
77. Garrison, R. G., K. S. Boyd, and F. Mariat. 1975. Ultrastructural studies of the mycelium-to yeast transformation of Sporothrix schenckii. J. Bacteriol. 124:959-968.
78. Gezuele, E., and D. Da Rosa. 2005. Relevancia del cuerpo asteroide esporotricosico en el diagnostico rapido de la esporotricosis. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 22:147-150.
79. Ghosh, A., P. K. Maity, B. M. Hemashettar, V. K. Sharma, and A. Chakrabarti. 2002. Physiological characters of Sporothrix schenckii isolates. Mycoses 45:449-454.
80. Gonzalez, G. M., A. W. Fothergill, D. A. Sutton, M. G. Rinaldi, and D. Loebenberg. 2005. In vitro activities of new and established triazoles against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi. Med. Mycol. 43:281-284.
81. Gordon, M. A., E. W. Lapa, M. S. Fitter, and M. Lindsay. 1980. Susceptibility of zoopathogenic fungi to phytoalexins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 17:120-123.
82. Gottlieb, G. S., C. F. Lesser, K. K. Holmes, and A. Wald. 2003. Disseminated sporotrichosis associated with treatment with immunosuppressants and tumor necrosis factor-alpha antagonists. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37:838-840.
83. Gremiao, I. D., et al. 2009. Intralesional amphotericin B in a cat with refractory localised sporotrichosis. J. Feline Med. Surg. 11:720-723.
84. Guarro, J., J. Gene, and A. M. Stchigel. 1999. Developments in fungal taxonomy. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12:454-500.
85. Gullberg, R. M., A. Quintanilla, M. L. Levin, J. Williams, and J. P. Phair. 1987. Sporotrichosis: recurrent cutaneous, articular, and central nervous system infection in a renal transplant recipient. Rev. Infect. Dis. 9:369-375.
86. Gutierrez-Galhardo, M. C., et al. 2005. Erythema multiforme associated with sporotrichosis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 19:507-509.
87. Gutierrez-Galhardo, M. C., A. C. do Valle, et al. 2010. Disseminated sporotrichosis as a manifestation of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Mycoses 53:78-80.
88. Gutierrez-Galhardo, M. C., R. M. Zancope-Oliveira, A. Monzon, J. L. Rodriguez-Tudela, and M. Cuenca-Estrella. 2010. Antifungal susceptibility profile in vitro of Sporothrix schenckii in two growth phases and by two methods: microdilution and E-test. Mycoses 53:227-231.
89. Gutierrez Galhardo, M. C., et al. 2002. Erythema nodosum associated with sporotrichosis. Int. J. Dermatol. 41:114-116.
90. Gutierrez Galhardo, M. C., et al. 2008. Molecular epidemiology and antifungal susceptibility patterns of Sporothrix schenckii isolates from a cattransmitted epidemic of sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Med. Mycol. 46:141-151.
91. Haddad, V. J., H. A. Miot, L. D. Bartoli, C. Cardoso Ade, and R. M. de Camargo. 2002. Localized lymphatic sporotrichosis after fish-induced injury (Tilapia sp.). Med. Mycol. 40:425-427.
92. Hajjeh, R., et al. 1997. Outbreak of sporotrichosis among tree nursery workers. J. Infect. Dis. 176:499-504.
93. Hampton, D. E., A. Adesina, and J. Chodosh. 2002. Conjunctival sporotrichosis in the absence of antecedent trauma. Cornea 21:831-833.
94. Hardman, S., I. Stephenson, D. R. Jenkins, M. J. Wiselka, and E. M. Johnson. 2005. Disseminated Sporothix schenckii in a patient with AIDS. J. Infect. 51:e73-77.
95. Hektoen, L., and C. F. Perkins. 1900. Refractory subcutaneous abscess caused by Sporothrix schenckii: a new pathogenic fungus. J. Exp. Med. 5:77-91.
96. Helm, M., and C. Berman. 1947. The clinical, therapeutic and epidemiological features of the sporotrichosis infection on the mines, p. 59-67. In Sporotrichosis infection on mines of the Witwatersrand. Proceedings of the Transvaal Mine Medical Officers' Association, December 1944, Johannesburg, South Africa. The Transvaal Chamber of Mines, Johannesburg, South Africa.
97. Hintz, W. E. 1999. Sequence analysis of the chitin synthase A gene of the Dutch elm pathogen Ophiostoma novo-ulmi indicates a close association with the human pathogen Sporothrix schenckii. Gene 237:215-221.
98. Hirano, M., et al. 2006. A case of feline sporotrichosis. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 68:283-284.
99. Hiruma, M., T. Katoh, I. Yamamoto, and S. Kagawa. 1987. Local hyperthermia in the treatment of sporotrichosis. Mykosen 30:315-321.
100. Hogan, L. H., B. S. Klein, and S. M. Levitz. 1996. Virulence factors of medically important fungi. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9:469-488.
101. Howard, D. H., and G. F. Orr. 1963. Comparison of strains of Sporotrichum schenckii isolated from nature. J. Bacteriol. 85:816-821.
102. Howell, S. J., and J. S. Toohey. 1998. Sporotrichal arthritis in south central Kansas. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 1998:207-214.
103. Ishizaki, H., et al. 2009. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Sporothrix schenckii in India, Thailand, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala and Mexico. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 50:19-26.
104. Ishizaki, H., et al. 2004. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Sporothrix schenckii from China, Korea and Spain. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 45:23-25.
105. Itoh, M., S. Okamoto, and H. Kariya. 1986. Survey of 200 cases of sporotrichosis. Dermatologica 172:209-213.
106. Jacobson, E. S. 2000. Pathogenic roles for fungal melanins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13:708-717.
107. Johnson, E. M., A. Szekely, and D. W. Warnock. 1998. In-vitro activity of voriconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B against filamentous fungi. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 42:741-745.
108. Kajiwara, H., M. Saito, S. Ohga, T. Uenotsuchi, and S. Yoshida. 2004. Impaired host defense against Sporothrix schenckii in mice with chronic granulomatous disease. Infect. Immun. 72:5073-5079.
109. Kanbe, T., et al. 2005. Rapid and specific identification of Sporothrix schenckii by PCR targeting the DNA topoisomerase II gene. J. Dermatol. Sci. 38:99-106.
110. Kano, R., Y. Nakamura, S. Watanabe, H. Tsujimoto, and A. Hasegawa. 2001. Identification of Sporothrix schenckii based on sequences of the chitin synthase 1 gene. Mycoses 44:261-265.
111. Kaplan, W., J. R. Broderson, and J. N. Pacific. 1982. Spontaneous systemic sporotrichosis in nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). Sabouraudia 20:289-294.
112. Karlin, J. V., and H. S. Nielsen, Jr. 1970. Serologic aspects of sporotrichosis. J. Infect. Dis. 121:316-327.
113. Kashima, T., R. Honma, S. Kishi, and J. Hirato. 2010. Bulbar conjunctival sporotrichosis presenting as a salmon-pink tumor. Cornea 29:573-576.
114. Kauffman, C. A. 1999. Sporotrichosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29:231-237.
115. Kauffman, C. A., B. Bustamante, S. W. Chapman, and P. G. Pappas. 2007. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of sporotrichosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45:1255-1265.
116. Kazanas, N. 1986. Foodborne Sporothrix schenckii: infectivity for mice by intraperitoneal and intragastric inoculation with conidia. Mycopathologia 95:3-16.
117. Kazanas, N., and G. J. Jackson. 1983. Sporothrix schenckii isolated from edible black fungus mushrooms. J. Food Prot. 46:714-716.
118. Kenyon, E. M., L. H. Russell, and D. N. McMurray. 1984. Isolation of Sporothrix schenckii from potting soil. Mycopathologia 87:128.
119. Kikuchi, I., K. Morimoto, S. Kawana, and H. Tanuma. 2006. Usefulness of itraconazole for sporotrichosis in Japan: study of three cases and literature comparison of therapeutic effects before and after release on the market. Eur. J. Dermatol. 16:42-47.
120. Kohler, L. M., J. S. Hamdan, and T. C. Ferrari. 2007. Successful treatment of a disseminated Sporothrix schenckii infection and in vitro analysis for antifungal susceptibility testing. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 58:117-120.
121. Kohler, L. M., P. C. Monteiro, R. C. Hahn, and J. S. Hamdan. 2004. In vitro susceptibilities of isolates of Sporothrix schenckii to itraconazole and terbinafine. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:4319-4320.
122. Kohler, L. M., B. M. Soares, D. de Assis Santos, M. E. Da Silva Barros, and J. S. Hamdan. 2006. In vitro susceptibility of isolates of Sporothrix schenckii to amphotericin B, itraconazole, and terbinafine: comparison of yeast and mycelial forms. Can. J. Microbiol. 52:843-847.
123. Kong, X., T. Xiao, J. Lin, Y. Wang, and H. D. Chen. 2006. Relationships among genotypes, virulence and clinical forms of Sporothrix schenckii infection. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12:1077-1081.
124. Kovarik, C. L., E. Neyra, and B. Bustamante. 2008. Evaluation of cats as the source of endemic sporotrichosis in Peru. Med. Mycol. 46:53-56.
125. Kumar, R., E. van der Smissen, and J. Jorizzo. 1984. Systemic sporotrichosis with osteomyelitis. J. Can. Assoc. Radiol. 35:83-84.
126. Kwon-Chung, K. J., and J. E. Bennet. 1992. Medical mycology. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA.
127. Kwon-Chung, K. J., W. B. Hill, and J. E. Bennett. 1981. New, special stain for histopathological diagnosis of cryptococcosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 13:383-387.
128. Lacaz, C. S., E. Porto, E. M. Heins-Vaccari, and N. T. Melo. 1998. Guia para identificac ̧ão: fungos, actinomicetos e algas de interesse médico. Sarvier, São Paulo, Brazil.
129. Lacaz, C. S., E. Porto, J. E. C. Martins, E. M. Heins-Vaccari, and N. T. Melo. 2002. Tratado de micologia médica. Sarvier, São Paulo, Brazil.
130. Larone, D. H. 2002. Medically important fungi: a guide to identification, 4th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
131. Latge, J. P. 1999. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12:310-350.
132. Lavalle, P., and F. Mariat. 1983. Sporotrichosis. Bull. Inst. Pasteur 81:295-322.
133. Lima, O. C., et al. 2004. Immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analysis of fibronectin and laminin binding to Sporothrix schenckii yeast cells and conidia. Microb. Pathog. 37:131-140.
134. Lima, O. C., et al. 1999. Adhesion of the human pathogen Sporothrix schenckii to several extracellular matrix proteins. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 32:651-657.
135. Lima, O. C., et al. 2001. Involvement of fungal cell wall components in adhesion of Sporothrix schenckii to human fibronectin. Infect. Immun. 69: 6874-6880.
136. Lin, J., et al. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Sporothrix schenckii clinical isolates from China. Mycopathologia 148:69-72.
137. Lindsley, M. D., S. F. Hurst, N. J. Iqbal, and C. J. Morrison. 2001. Rapid identification of dimorphic and yeast-like fungal pathogens using specific DNA probes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39:3505-3511.
138. Lloyd, K. O., and M. A. Bitoon. 1971. Isolation and purification of a peptido-rhamnomannan from the yeast form of Sporothrix schenckii. Structural and immunochemical studies. J. Immunol. 107:663-671.
139. Loureiro Penha, C. V., and L. M. Lopes Bezerra. 2000. Concanavalin A-binding cell wall antigens of Sporothrix schenckii: a serological study. Med. Mycol. 38:1-7.
140. Lutz, A., and A. Splendore. 1907. Sobre uma mycose observada em homens e ratos. Rev. Med. São Paulo 21:433-450.
141. Lyon, G. M., et al. 2003. Population-based surveillance and a case-control study of risk factors for endemic lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis in Peru. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36:34-39.
142. Mackinnon, J. E., I. A. Conti-Diaz, E. Gezuele, E. Civila, and S. da Luz. 1969. Isolation of Sporothrix schenckii from nature and considerations on its pathogenicity and ecology. Sabouraudia 7:38-45.
143. Macotela-Ruiz, E., and E. Nochebuena-Ramos. 2006. Esporotricosis en algunas comunidades rurales de la sierra norte de Puebla: informe de 55 casos (Septiembre 1995-Diciembre 2005). Gac. Med. Mex. 142:377-380.
144. Madrid, H., et al. 2009. Sporothrix globosa, a pathogenic fungus with widespread geographical distribution. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 26:218-222.
145. Magand, F., J. L. Perrot, F. Cambazard, M. H. Raberin, and B. Labeille. 2009. Sporotrichose cutanée autochtone franc ̧aise. Ann. Dermatol. Venereol. 136:273-275.
146. Maia, D. C., M. F. Sassa, M. C. Placeres, and I. Z. Carlos. 2006. Influence of Th1/Th2 cytokines and nitric oxide in murine systemic infection induced by Sporothrix schenckii. Mycopathologia 161:11-19.
147. Malliaris, S. D., J. N. Steenbergen, and A. Casadevall. 2004. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii can exploit Acanthamoeba castellanii for growth. Med. Mycol. 42:149-158.
148. Manohar, A., and M. N. Nizlan. 2008. Chronic nonhealing ulcer of the right thumb with multiple subcutaneous nodules. Orthopedics 31:710.
149. Marimon, R., et al. 2007. Sporothrix brasiliensis, S. globosa, and S. mexicana, three new Sporothrix species of clinical interest. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45:3198-3206.
150. Marimon, R., J. Gene, J. Cano, and J. Guarro. 2008. Sporothrix luriei: a rare fungus from clinical origin. Med. Mycol. 46:621-625.
151. Marimon, R., C. Serena, J. Gene, J. Cano, and J. Guarro. 2008. In vitro antifungal susceptibilities of five species of Sporothrix. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:732-734.
152. Masoko, P., L. K. Mdee, L. J. Mampuru, and J. N. Eloff. 2008. Biological activity of two related triterpenes isolated from Combretum nelsonii (Combretaceae) leaves. Nat. Prod. Res. 22:1074-1084.
153. Masoko, P., J. Picard, R. L. Howard, L. J. Mampuru, and J. N. Eloff. 2010. In vivo antifungal effect of Combretum and Terminalia species extracts on cutaneous wound healing in immunosuppressed rats. Pharm. Biol. 48:621-632.
154. McGinnis, M. R., N. Nordoff, R. K. Li, L. Pasarell, and D. W. Warnock. 2001. Sporothrix schenckii sensitivity to voriconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B. Med. Mycol. 39:369-371.
155. Mehta, K. I., N. L. Sharma, A. K. Kanga, V. K. Mahajan, and N. Ranjan. 2007. Isolation of Sporothrix schenckii from the environmental sources of cutaneous sporotrichosis patients in Himachal Pradesh, India: results of a pilot study. Mycoses 50:496-501.
156. Meinerz, A. R., et al. 2007. Suscetibilidade in vitro de isolados de Sporothrix schenckii frente a terbinafina e itraconazol. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop. 40:60-62.
157. Mendes-Giannini, M. J., et al. 2006. Binding of extracellular matrix proteins to Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Microbes Infect. 8:1550-1559.
158. Mendonca-Hagler, L. C., L. R. Travassos, K. O. Lloyd, and H. J. Phaff. 1974. Deoxyribonucleic acid base composition and hybridization studies on the human pathogen Sporothrix schenckii and Ceratocystis species. Infect. Immun. 9:934-938.
159. Mendoza, M., P. Alvarado, E. Diaz de Torres, L. Lucena, and M. C. de Albornoz. 2005. Comportamiento fisiologico y de sensibilidad in vitro de aislamientos de Sporothrix schenckii mantenidos 18 años por dós metodos de preservación. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 22:151-156.
160. Mendoza, M., et al. 2002. Production of culture filtrates of Sporothrix schenckii in diverse culture media. Med. Mycol. 40:447-454.
161. Mendoza, M., E. Diaz, P. Alvarado, E. Romero, and M. C. Bastardo de Albornoz. 2007. Aislamiento de Sporothrix schenckii del medio ambiente en Venezuela. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 24:317-319.
162. Mesa-Arango, A. C., et al. 2002. Phenotyping and genotyping of Sporothrix schenckii isolates according to geographic origin and clinical form of sporotrichosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40:3004-3011.
163. Migaki, G., R. L. Font, W. Kaplan, and E. D. Asper. 1978. Sporotrichosis in a Pacific white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens). Am. J. Vet. Res. 39:1916-1919.
164. Milby, A. H., N. D. Pappas, J. O'Donnell, and D. J. Bozentka. 2010. Sporotrichosis of the upper extremity. Orthopedics 16:273-275.
165. Miller, S. D., and J. H. Keeling. 2002. Ant sting sporotrichosis. Cutis 69:439-442.
166. Miranda, L. H., et al. 2010. Comparative histopathological study of sporotrichosis and American tegumentary leishmaniasis in dogs from Rio de Janeiro. J. Comp. Pathol. 143:1-7.
167. Mora-Cabrera, M., R. A. Alonso, R. Ulloa-Arvizu, and H. Torres-Guerrero. 2001. Analysis of restriction profiles of mitochondrial DNA from Sporothrix schenckii. Med. Mycol. 39:439-444.
168. Morera-Lopez, Y., J. M. Torres-Rodriguez, and T. Jimenez-Cabello. 2005. Estudio de la sensibilidad in vitro de aislamientos clínicos de mohos y levaduras a itraconazol y voriconazol. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 22:105-109.
169. Morris-Jones, R. 2002. Sporotrichosis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 27:427-431.
170. Morris-Jones, R., et al. 2003. Synthesis of melanin-like pigments by Sporothrix schenckii in vitro and during mammalian infection. Infect. Immun. 71:4026-4033.
171. Nakai, T., et al. 2003. In vitro antifungal activity of Micafungin (FK463) against dimorphic fungi: comparison of yeast-like and mycelial forms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:1376-1381.
172. Nascimento, R. C., and S. R. Almeida. 2005. Humoral immune response against soluble and fractionate antigens in experimental sporotrichosis. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 43:241-247.
173. Nascimento, R. C., et al. 2008. Passive immunization with monoclonal antibody against a 70-kDa putative adhesin of Sporothrix schenckii induces protection in murine sporotrichosis. Eur. J. Immunol. 38:3080-3089.
174. Newton, P. N., W. H. Chung, R. Phetsouvanh, and N. J. White. 2005. Sporotrichosis, Plain of Jars, Lao People's Democratic Republic. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11:1496-1497.
175. Nobre, M. O., et al. 2005. Differences in virulence between isolates of feline sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 160:43-49.
176. Noriega, C. T., R. R. Garay, G. Sabanero, R. T. Basurto, and M. Sabanero- Lopez. 1993. Sporothrix schenckii: culturas en diferentes suelos. Rev. Latinoam. Micol. 35:191-194.
177. Odabasi, Z., V. L. Paetznick, J. R. Rodriguez, E. Chen, and L. Ostrosky-Zeichner. 2004. In vitro activity of anidulafungin against selected clinically important mold isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:1912-1915.
178. Oliveira, M. M. E. 2009. M.Sc. thesis. Fundac ̧ão Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
179. Oliveira, M. M. E., et al. 2010. Sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix globosa in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: case report. Mycopathologia 169:359-363.
180. O'Reilly, L. C., and S. A. Altman. 2006. Macrorestriction analysis of clinical and environmental isolates of Sporothrix schenckii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 2547-2552.
181. Orellana, A., G. Moreno-Coutino, E. Poletti, M. E. Vega, and R. Arenas. 2009. Esporotricosis fija con cuerpo asteroide junto al fragmento vegetal. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 26:250-251.
182. Palomino, J., O. Saeed, P. Daroca, and J. Lasky. 2009. A 47-year-old man with cough, dyspnea, and an abnormal chest radiograph. Chest 135:872-875.
183. Pappas, P. G., et al. 2000. Sporotrichosis in Peru: description of an area of hyperendemicity. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30:65-70.
184. Powell, K. E., et al. 1978. Cutaneous sporotrichosis in forestry workers. Epidemic due to contaminated Sphagnum moss. JAMA 240:232-235.
185. Pupo, J. A. 1917. Frequencia da sporotrichose em São Paulo. Ann. Paulistas Med. Cirurgia 8:53-68.
186. Quintella, L. P., S. R. Lambert Passos, A. C. Francesconi do Vale, et al. 2011. Histopathology of cutaneous sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro: a series of 119 consecutive cases. J. Cutan. Pathol. 38:25-32.
187. Ramesh, V. 2007. Sporotrichoid cutaneous tuberculosis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 32:680-682.
188. Ramirez, J., R. P. Byrd, and T. M. Roy. 1998. Chronic cavitary pulmonary sporotrichosis: efficacy of oral itraconazole. J. Ky. Med. Assoc. 96:103-105.
189. Ramos-e-Silva, M., C. Vasconcelos, S. Carneiro, and T. Cestari. 2007. Sporotrichosis. Clin. Dermatol. 25:181-187.
190. Read, S. I., and L. C. Sperling. 1982. Feline sporotrichosis. Transmission to man. Arch. Dermatol. 118:429-431.
191. Reis, R. S., et al. 2009. Molecular characterisation of Sporothrix schenckii isolates from humans and cats involved in the sporotrichosis epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 104:769-774.
192. Reiss, E. 1986. Molecular immunology of mycotic and actinomycotic infections. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
193. Reiss, E., T. Obayashi, K. Orle, M. Yoshida, and R. M. Zancope-Oliveira. 2000. Non-culture based diagnostic tests for mycotic infections. Med. Mycol. 38(Suppl. 1):147-159.
194. Resto, S., and N. Rodriguez-del Valle. 1988. Yeast cell cycle of Sporothrix schenckii. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 26:13-24.
195. Rippon, J. 1988. Sporotrichosis, p. 325-352. In J. Rippon (ed.), Medical mycology-the pathogenic fungi and the pathogenic actinomycetes, 3rd ed. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
196. Rodrigues, M. L., L. Nimrichter, D. L. Oliveira, J. D. Nosanchuk, and A. Casadevall. 2008. Vesicular trans-cell wall transport in fungi: a mechanism for the delivery of virulence-associated macromolecules? Lipid Insights 2:27-40.
197. Rodrigues, M. T., and M. A. Resende. 1996. Epidemiologic skin test survey of sensitivity to paracoccidioidin, histoplasmin and sporotrichin among gold mine workers of Morro Velho Mining, Brazil. Mycopathologia 135:89-98.
198. Rodriguez-del Valle, N., and J. R. Rodriguez-Medina. 1993. Calcium stimulates molecular and cellular events during the yeast-to-mycelium transition in Sporothrix schenckii. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 31:43-53.
199. Rodriguez-Del Valle, N., M. Rosario, and G. Torres-Blasini. 1983. Effects of pH, temperature, aeration and carbon source on the development of the mycelial or yeast forms of Sporothrix schenckii from conidia. Mycopathologia 82:83-88.
200. Rodriguez-Tudela, J. L., et al. 2008. Method for the determination of broth dilution minimum inhibitory concentrations of antifungal agents for conidia forming moulds. EUCAST E.DEF. 9.1.
201. Romero-Martinez, R., M. Wheeler, A. Guerrero-Plata, G. Rico, and H. Torres-Guerrero. 2000. Biosynthesis and functions of melanin in Sporothrix schenckii. Infect. Immun. 68:3696-3703.
202. Rosa, W. D., E. Gezuele, L. Calegari, and F. Goni. 2008. Asteroid body in sporotrichosis. Yeast viability and biological significance within the host immune response. Med. Mycol. 46:443-448.
203. Rosa, W. D., E. Gezuele, L. Calegari, and F. Goni. 2009. Excretion-secretion products and proteases from live Sporothrix schenckii yeast phase: immunological detection and cleavage of human IgG. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. São Paulo 51:1-7.
204. Rubio, G., G. Sanchez, L. Porras, and Z. Alvarado. 2010. Esporotricosis: prevalencia, perfil clinico y epidemiologico en un centro de referencia en Colombia. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 27:75-79.
205. Ruiz-Baca, E., et al. 2009. Isolation and some properties of a glycoprotein of 70 kDa (Gp70) from the cell wall of Sporothrix schenckii involved in fungal adherence to dermal extracellular matrix. Med. Mycol. 47:185-196.
206. Ruiz-Cendoya, M., M. M. Rodriguez, M. Marine, F. J. Pastor, and J. Guarro. 2008. In vitro interactions of itraconazole and micafungin against clinically important filamentous fungi. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 32:418-420.
207. Safdar, A. 2003. Clinical microbiological case: infection imitating lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis during pregnancy in a healthy woman from the south-eastern USA. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9:221, 224-226.
208. Salaki, J. S., D. B. Louria, and H. Chmel. 1984. Fungal and yeast infections of the central nervous system. A clinical review. Medicine 63:108-132.
209. Sanchez-Aleman, M. A., J. Araiza, and A. Bonifaz. 2004. Aislamiento y caracterizacion de cepas silvestres de Sporothrix schenckii e investigacion de reactores a la esporotricina. Gac. Med. Mex. 140:507-512.
210. Sandhu, G. S., B. C. Kline, L. Stockman, and G. D. Roberts. 1995. Molecular probes for diagnosis of fungal infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2913-2919.
211. Saravanakumar, P. S., P. Eslami, and F. A. Zar. 1996. Lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis associated with a squirrel bite: case report and review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23:647-648.
212. Sashidhara, K. V., S. P. Singh, and P. K. Shukla. 2009. Antimicrobial evaluation of clerodane diterpenes from Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula. Nat. Prod. Commun. 4:327-330.
213. Scheinfeld, N. 2007. A review of the new antifungals: posaconazole, micafungin, and anidulafungin. J. Drugs Dermatol. 6:1249-1251.
214. Schell, W. 1998. Agents of chromoblastomycosis and sporotrichosis, p. 315-336. In L. Ajello and R. J. Hay (ed.), Topley & Wilson's microbiology and microbial infections, 9th ed., vol. 4. Arnold, London, United Kingdom.
215. Schell, W. A., I. F. Salkin, L. Pasarell, and M. R. McGinnis. 1999. Bipolaris, Exophiala, Scedosporium, Sporothrix and other dematiaceous fungi, p. 1295-1317. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, M. A. Pfaller, F. C. Tenover, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of clinical microbiology, 7th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
216. Schenck, B. R. 1898. On refractory subcutaneous abscess caused by a fungus possibly related to the Sporotricha. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 9:286-290.
217. Schubach, A., M. B. Barros, and B. Wanke. 2008. Epidemic sporotrichosis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21:129-133.
218. Schubach, A., M. B. de Lima Barros, T. M. Schubach, A. C. Francesconido-Valle, et al. 2005. Primary conjunctival sporotrichosis: two cases from a zoonotic epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Cornea 24:491-493.
219. Schubach, A. O., T. M. Schubach, and M. B. Barros. 2005. Epidemic cat-transmitted sporotrichosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 353:1185-1186.
220. Schubach, T. M., A. de Oliveira Schubach, R. S. dos Reis, et al. 2002. Sporothrix schenckii isolated from domestic cats with and without sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Mycopathologia 153:83-86.
221. Schubach, T. M., et al. 2004. Evaluation of an epidemic of sporotrichosis in cats: 347 cases (1998-2001). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 224:1623-1629.
222. Schubach, T. M., et al. 2006. Canine sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis and therapeutic response in 44 cases (1998-2003). Med. Mycol. 44:87-92.
223. Schubach, T. M., et al. 2003. Haematogenous spread of Sporothrix schenckii in cats with naturally acquired sporotrichosis. J. Small Anim. Pract. 44:395-398.
224. Schubach, T. M., et al. 2003. Pathology of sporotrichosis in 10 cats in Rio de Janeiro. Vet. Rec. 152:172-175.
225. Schubach, T. M., et al. 2001. Isolation of Sporothrix schenckii from the nails of domestic cats (Felis catus). Med. Mycol. 39:147-149.
226. Schwartz, D. A. 1989. Sporothrix tenosynovitis-differential diagnosis of granulomatous inflammatory disease of the joints. J. Rheumatol. 16:550-553.
227. Scott, E. N., L. Kaufman, A. C. Brown, and H. G. Muchmore. 1987. Serologic studies in the diagnosis and management of meningitis due to Sporothrix schenckii. N. Engl. J. Med. 317:935-940.
228. Scott, E. N., and H. G. Muchmore. 1989. Immunoblot analysis of antibody responses to Sporothrix schenckii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:300-304.
229. Scott, E. N., H. G. Muchmore, and D. P. Fine. 1986. Activation of the alternative complement pathway by Sporothrix schenckii. Infect. Immun. 51:6-9.
230. Sgarbi, D. B., et al. 1997. Isolation of ergosterol peroxide and its reversion to ergosterol in the pathogenic fungus Sporothrix schenckii. Mycopathologia 139:9-14.
231. Sia, R. A., K. B. Lengeler, and J. Heitman. 2000. Diploid strains of the pathogenic basidiomycete Cryptococcus neoformans are thermally dimorphic. Fungal Genet. Biol. 29:153-163.
232. Sigler, L., et al. 1990. Microbiology and potential virulence of Sporothrix cyanescens, a fungus rarely isolated from blood and skin. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1009-1015.
233. Silva-Vergara, M. L., et al. 2005. Multifocal sporotrichosis with meningeal involvement in a patient with AIDS. Med. Mycol. 43:187-190.
234. Silveira, C. P., et al. 2009. MICs and minimum fungicidal concentrations of amphotericin B, itraconazole, posaconazole and terbinafine in Sporothrix schenckii. J. Med. Microbiol. 58:1607-1610.
235. Singer, J. I., and J. E. Muncie. 1952. Sporotrichosis. Etiologic considerations and report of additional cases from New York. N. Y. State J. Med. 52:2147-2153.
236. Smith, M. T., and W. H. Batenburg-Van der Vegte. 1985. Ultrastructure in septa in Blastobotrys and Sporothrix. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 51:121-128.
237. Song, Y., et al. 2011. Efficacy and safety of itraconazole pulses vs. continuous regimen in cutaneous sporotrichosis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 25:302-305.
238. Stalkup, J. R., K. Bell, and T. Rosen. 2002. Disseminated cutaneous sporotrichosis treated with itraconazole. Cutis 69:371-374.
239. Steenbergen, J. N., J. D. Nosanchuk, S. D. Malliaris, and A. Casadevall. 2004. Interaction of Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, and Histoplasma capsulatum with Acanthamoeba castellanii. Infect. Immun. 72: 3478-3488.
240. Stevens, D. A. 2002. Diagnosis of fungal infections: current status. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 49(Suppl. 1):11-19.
241. St-Germain, G., and R. C. Summerbell. 1996. Identifying filamentous fungi. A clinical laboratory handbook. Star Publishing Company, Belmont, CA.
242. Suzuki, K., M. Kawasaki, and H. Ishizaki. 1988. Analysis of restriction profiles of mitochondrial DNA from Sporothrix schenckii and related fungi. Mycopathologia 103:147-151.
243. Svoboda, A., and A. Trujillo-Gonzalez. 1990. Sporothrix schenckii-a freezefracture study. J. Basic Microbiol. 30:371-378.
244. Taboada, J. 2000. Systemic mycoses, p. 453-476. In S. Ettinger and E. Feldman (ed.), Textbook of veterinary internal medicine-diseases of the dog and cat, 5th ed., vol. 1. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
245. Tachibana, T., T. Matsuyama, and M. Mitsuyama. 1998. Characteristic infectivity of Sporothrix schenckii to mice depending on routes of infection and inherent fungal pathogenicity. Med. Mycol. 36:21-27.
246. Tachibana, T., T. Matsuyama, and M. Mitsuyama. 1999. Involvement of CD4 T cells and macrophages in acquired protection against infection with Sporothrix schenckii in mice. Med. Mycol. 37:397-404.
247. Takenaka, M., S. Sato, and K. Nishimoto. 2009. Survey of 155 sporotrichosis cases examined in Nagasaki Prefecture from 1951 to 2007. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 50:101-108.
248. Tateishi, T., S. Y. Murayama, F. Otsuka, and H. Yamaguchi. 1996. Karyotyping by PFGE of clinical isolates of Sporothrix schenckii. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 13:147-154.
249. Teixeira, P. A., et al. 2010. L-DOPA accessibility in culture medium increases melanin expression and virulence of Sporothrix schenckii yeast cells. Med. Mycol. 48:687-695.
250. Teixeira, P. A., et al. 2009. Cell surface expression of adhesins for fibronectin correlates with virulence in Sporothrix schenckii. Microbiology 155:3730-3738.
251. Tlougan, B. E., J. O. Podjasek, S. P. Patel, X. H. Nguyen, and R. C. Hansen. 2009. Neonatal sporotrichosis. Pediatr. Dermatol. 26:563-565.
252. Tobin, E. H., and W. W. Jih. 2001. Sporotrichoid lymphocutaneous infections: etiology, diagnosis and therapy. Am. Fam. Physician 63:326-332.
253. Toledo, M. S., et al. 2010. Effect of anti-glycosphingolipid monoclonal antibodies in pathogenic fungal growth and differentiation. Characterization of monoclonal antibody MEST-3 directed to Manpa133Manpa32IPC. BMC Microbiol. 10:47.
254. Torinuki, W., and H. Tagami. 1985. Complement activation by Sporothrix schenckii. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 277:332-333.
255. Torres-Guerrero, H. 1999. Ploidy studies in Sporothrix schenckii. Fungal Genet. Biol. 27:49-54.
256. Trilles, L., et al. 2005. In vitro antifungal susceptibilities of Sporothrix schenckii in two growth phases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3952-3954.
257. Uenotsuchi, T., et al. 2006. Differential induction of Th1-prone immunity by human dendritic cells activated with Sporothrix schenckii of cutaneous and visceral origins to determine their different virulence. Int. Immunol. 18: 1637-1646.
258. Valentin-Berrios, S., W. Gonzalez-Velazquez, L. Perez-Sanchez, R. Gonzalez-Mendez, and N. Rodriguez-Del Valle. 2009. Cytosolic phospholipase A2: a member of the signalling pathway of a new G protein alpha subunit in Sporothrix schenckii. BMC Microbiol. 9:100.
259. Valle-Aviles, L., S. Valentin-Berrios, R. R. Gonzalez-Mendez, and N. Rodriguez-Del Valle. 2007. Functional, genetic and bioinformatic characterization of a calcium/calmodulin kinase gene in Sporothrix schenckii. BMC Microbiol. 7:107.
260. van Duin, D., A. Casadevall, and J. D. Nosanchuk. 2002. Melanization of Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum reduces their susceptibilities to amphotericin B and caspofungin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46:3394-3400.
261. Vicentini, A. P., et al. 1994. Binding of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis to laminin through surface glycoprotein gp43 leads to enhancement of fungal pathogenesis. Infect. Immun. 62:1465-1469.
262. Vilela, R., G. F. Souza, G. Fernandes Cota, and L. Mendoza. 2007. Cutaneous and meningeal sporotrichosis in a HIV patient. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 24:161-163.
263. Wenker, C. J., L. Kaufman, L. N. Bacciarini, and N. Robert. 1998. Sporotrichosis in a nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 29:474-478.
264. Woods, J. P. 2003. Knocking on the right door and making a comfortable home: Histoplasma capsulatum intracellular pathogenesis. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6:327-331.
265. Xu, T. H., et al. 2010. Identification of Sporothrix schenckii of various mtDNA types by nested PCR assay. Med. Mycol. 48:161-165.
266. Xue, S. L., and L. Li. 2009. Oral potassium iodide for the treatment of sporotrichosis. Mycopathologia 167:355-356.
267. Yang, D. J., et al. 2006. Disseminated sporotrichosis mimicking sarcoidosis. Int. J. Dermatol. 45:450-453.
268. Yegneswaran, P. P., et al. 2009. Zoonotic sporotrichosis of lymphocutaneous type in a man acquired from a domesticated feline source: report of a first case in southern Karnataka, India. Int. J. Dermatol. 48:1198-1200.
269. Zarnowski, R., and J. P. Woods. 2005. Glutathione-dependent extracellular ferric reductase activities in dimorphic zoopathogenic fungi. Microbiology 151:2233-2240.
270. Zhang, X., and J. H. Andrews. 1993. Evidence for growth of Sporothrix schenckii on dead but not on living sphagnum moss. Mycopathologia 123: 87-94.