Therapeutic drug monitoring for drugs used in the treatment of substance-related disorders: Literature review using a therapeutic drug monitoring appropriateness rating scale

Therapeutic Drug Monitoring

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 561-572

  Brünen, Sonja ^a   Vincent, Philippe D ^b   Baumann, Pierre ^c   Hiemke, Christoph ^a   Havemann Reinecke, Ursula ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER MAINZ   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

alcohol dependence; opioid dependence; substance related disorders; therapeutic drug monitoring

Indexed keywords

ACAMPROSATE; AMFEBUTAMONE; BUPRENORPHINE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CIMETIDINE; CLOMETHIAZOLE; CLOZAPINE; CYTOCHROME P450 1A2; CYTOCHROME P450 2A6; CYTOCHROME P450 2B6; CYTOCHROME P450 2C19; CYTOCHROME P450 2C8; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 2E1; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; DISULFIRAM; DRUG METABOLITE; DRUGS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF ADDICTION; LITHIUM; METHADONE; NALTREXONE; NORTRIPTYLINE; RADAFAXINE; VARENICLINE;

ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL; ALCOHOLISM; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; CONVULSION; COST CONTROL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DEPRESSION; DRUG ALCOHOL INTERACTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SCREENING; DRUG TOXICITY; FOOD DRUG INTERACTION; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; LIVER FAILURE; OPIATE ADDICTION; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RATING SCALE; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; SENESCENCE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING CESSATION; STEADY STATE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TACHYCARDIA; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

ALCOHOL DETERRENTS; DRUG MONITORING; HUMANS; NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS; TOBACCO USE CESSATION PRODUCTS;

EID: 80053563033     PISSN: 01634356     EISSN: 15363694     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31822fbf7c     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Management of substance abuse. World Health Organization web site. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance abuse/facts/global-burden/en/index. html. Accessed August 27, 2010.
2. Sadock BJ KH, Sadock VA. Kaplan & Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry. Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry, 10th ed. Philadelphia: Wolter Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
3. Soyka M, Kranzler HR, Berglund M, et al.World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of substance use and related disorders, Part 1: Alcoholism. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2008;9:6-23. (Pubitemid 351250516)
4. DiPiro J. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical; 2008.
5. Jimenez-Ruiz C, Berlin I, Hering T. Varenicline: a novel pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation. Drugs. 2009;69:1319-1338.
6. Baumann P, Hiemke C, Ulrich S, et al. The AGNP-TDM expert group consensus guidelines: therapeutic drug monitoring in psychiatry. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2004;37:243-265. (Pubitemid 39587052)
7. Eap CB, Bourquin M, Martin J, et al. Plasma concentrations of the enantiomers of methadone and therapeutic response in methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000;61:47-54.
8. Ulrich S, Hiemke C, Laux G, et al. Value and actuality of the prescription information for therapeutic drug monitoring of psychopharmaceuticals: a comparison with the medico-scientific evidence. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2007;40:121-127. (Pubitemid 46915320)
9. Duxbury K, Romagnoli C, Anderson M, et al. Development of a clinically relevant liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assay for 13 drugs of abuse in urine, designed to meet the needs of the service users. Ann Clin Biochem. 2010;47:415-422.
10. Glotzbach RK, Preskorn SH. Brain concentrations of tricyclic antidepressants: single-dose kinetics and relationship to plasma concentrations in chronically dosed rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1982;78:25-27. (Pubitemid 12036015)
11. Aitchison K, Datla K, Rooprai H, et al. Regional distribution of clomipramine and desmethylclomipramine in rat brain and peripheral organs on chronic clomipramine administration. J Psychopharmacol. 2010;24:1261-1268.
12. Bruggemann RJ, Donnelly JP, Aarnoutse RE, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring of voriconazole. Ther Drug Monit. 2008;30:403-411.
13. Rasmussen JN, Chong A, Alter DA. Relationship between adherence to evidence-based pharmacotherapy and long-term mortality after acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2007;297:177-186. (Pubitemid 46089734)
14. Haen E, Greiner C, Bader W, et al. Expanding therapeutic reference ranges using dose-related reference ranges [in German]. Nervenarzt. 2008;79:558-566.
15. Reis M, Akerblad AC, Ekselius L, et al. Partial compliance as determined from plasma levels of sertraline and its metabolite in depressed patients in primary care. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30: 746-748.
16. Micromedex Health Care series. Thomson Health Care web site. Available at: http://www.thomsonhc.com. Accessed August 27, 2010.
17. Bschor T, Lewitzka U, Pfennig A, et al. Twenty-five years of lithium augmentation [in German]. Nervenarzt. 2007;78:1237-1247. (Pubitemid 350093373)
18. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Lithium. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:1460-1462.
19. Medhi B, Prakash O, Jose VM, et al. Seasonal variation in plasma levels of lithium in the Indian population: is there a need to modify the dose? Singapore Med J. 2008;49:724-727.
20. Sproule B. Lithium in bipolar disorder: can drug concentrations predict therapeutic effect? Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:639-660.
21. Yip KK, Yeung WT. Lithium overdose causing non-convulsive status epilepticus-the importance of lithium levels and the electroencephalography in diagnosis. Hong Kong Med J. 2007;13:471-474. (Pubitemid 351206682)
22. Bailey B, McGuigan M. Lithium poisoning from a poison control center perspective. Ther Drug Monit. 2000;22:650-655.
23. Mester R, Toren P, Mizrachi I, et al. Caffeine withdrawal increases lithium blood levels. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;37:348-350.
24. Anton RF, Paladino JA, Morton A, et al. Effect of acute alcohol consumption on lithium kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1985;38:52-55. (Pubitemid 15242199)
25. Buur-Rasmussen B, Brosen K. Cytochrome P450 and therapeutic drug monitoring with respect to clozapine. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1999;9:453-459. (Pubitemid 30089056)
26. Durst R, Teitelbaum A, Katz G, et al. Withdrawal from clozapine: the rebound phenomenon. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 1999;36:122-128.
27. Gaertner I, Gaertner HJ, Vonthein R, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring of clozapine in relapse prevention: a five-year prospective study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:305-310. (Pubitemid 32452936)
28. Rouleau B, Martel VP. Le monitoring thérapeutique de la clozapine: une nécessité clinique. J Pharmactuel. 2008;41:87-93.
29. Schulte P. What is an adequate trial with clozapine? Therapeutic drug monitoring and time to response in treatment-refractory schizophrenia. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2003;42:607-618. (Pubitemid 36936526)
30. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Clozapine. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:615-619.
31. Freeman DJ, Oyewumi LK. Will routine therapeutic drug monitoring have a place in clozapine therapy? Clin Pharmacokinet. 1997;32:93-100. (Pubitemid 27104409)
32. VanderZwaag C, McGee M, McEvoy JP, et al. Response of patients with treatment-refractory schizophrenia to clozapine within three serum level ranges. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1579-1584. (Pubitemid 26406168)
33. Benkert O, Hippius H. Compendium of Psychiatric Pharmacotherapy [in German]. 8th ed. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer; 2011.
34. Ozdemir V, Kalow W, Posner P, et al. CYP1A2 activity as measured by a caffeine test predicts clozapine and active metabolite steady-state concentration in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:398-407. (Pubitemid 32673029)
35. Fabrazzo M, La Pia S, Monteleone P, et al. Is the time course of clozapine response correlated to the time course of clozapine plasma levels? A oneyear prospective study in drug-resistant patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;27:1050-1055. (Pubitemid 35447642)
36. Lacro JP, Dunn LB, Dolder CR, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for medication nonadherence in patients with schizophrenia: a comprehensive review of recent literature. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:892-909. (Pubitemid 35231730)
37. Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, et al. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1209-1223. (Pubitemid 41345943)
38. Asberg M, Cronholm B, Sjoqvist F, et al. Relationship between plasma level and therapeutic effect of nortriptyline. Br Med J. 1971;3: 331-334.
39. Rohrig TP, Prouty RW. A nortriptyline death with unusually high tissue concentrations. J Anal Toxicol. 1989;13:303-304. (Pubitemid 19231668)
40. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Nortriptyline. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:1778-1779.
41. Alexanderson B, Evans DA, Sjoqvist F. Steady-state plasma levels of nortriptyline in twins: influence of genetic factors and drug therapy. Br Med J. 1969;4:764-768.
42. Demyttenaere K, Van Ganse E, Gregoire J, et al. Compliance in depressed patients treated with fluoxetine or amitriptyline. Belgian Compliance Study Group. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;13:11-17. (Pubitemid 28092265)
43. Jaquenoud Sirot E, van der Velden JW, Rentsch K, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring and pharmacogenetic tests as tools in pharmacovigilance. Drug Saf. 2006;29:735-768. (Pubitemid 44352241)
44. Gillman PK. Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;151:737-748. (Pubitemid 47075311)
45. Reis M, Aamo T, Spigset O, et al. Serum concentrations of antidepressant drugs in a naturalistic setting: compilation based on a large therapeutic drug monitoring database. Ther Drug Monit. 2009;31: 42-56.
46. Aranow AB, Hudson JI, Pope HG Jr, et al. Elevated antidepressant plasma levels after addition of fluoxetine. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146:911-913. (Pubitemid 19180974)
47. Simmons SA, Perry PJ, Rickert ED, et al. Cost-benefit analysis of prospective pharmacokinetic dosing of nortriptyline in depressed inpatients. J Affect Disord. 1985;8:47-53. (Pubitemid 15138508)
48. Mason BJ, Goodman AM, Dixon RM, et al. A pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interaction study of acamprosate and naltrexone. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;27:596-606.
49. Saivin S, Hulot T, Chabac S, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of acamprosate. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998;35:331-345. (Pubitemid 28520006)
50. Mason BJ. Acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2005;6:2103-2115. (Pubitemid 41600586)
51. Hammarberg A, Jayaram-Lindstrom N, Beck O, et al. The effects of acamprosate on alcohol-cue reactivity and alcohol priming in dependent patients: a randomized controlled trial. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2009;205:53-62.
52. Hammarberg A, Beck O, Eksborg S, et al. Acamprosate determinations in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid after multiple dosing measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy: a pharmacokinetic study in healthy volunteers. Ther Drug Monit. 2010;32:489-496.
53. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Suboxone. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:2438-2441.
54. Greenwald MK, Johanson CE, Moody DE, et al. Effects of buprenorphine maintenance dose on mu-opioid receptor availability, plasma concentrations, and antagonist blockade in heroin-dependent volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003;28:2000-2009. (Pubitemid 37412109)
55. Kuhlman JJ Jr, Levine B, Johnson RE, et al. Relationship of plasma buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine to withdrawal symptoms during dose induction, maintenance and withdrawal from sublingual buprenorphine. Addiction. 1998;93:549-559. (Pubitemid 28188074)
56. Chawarski MC, Schottenfeld RS, O'Connor PG, et al. Plasma concentrations of buprenorphine 24 to 72 hours after dosing. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999;55:157-163. (Pubitemid 29222014)
57. Fincham J. Cardiopulmonary arrest and subsequent death after administration of buprenorphine in an elderly female: a case report. J Geriatric Drug Ther. 1989;3:103-105. (Pubitemid 19147850)
58. Du J, Xing Q, Xu L, et al. Systematic screening for polymorphisms in the CYP3A4 gene in the Chinese population. Pharmacogenomics. 2006;7: 831-841. (Pubitemid 44446734)
59. Elkader A, Sproule B. Buprenorphine: clinical pharmacokinetics in the treatment of opioid dependence. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44: 661-680. (Pubitemid 40994078)
60. Harcus AW, Ward AE, Smith DW. Buprenorphine: experience in an elderly population of 975 patients during a year's monitored release. Br J Clin Pract. 1980;34:144-146. (Pubitemid 10103902)
61. Unger A, Jung E, Winklbaur B, et al. Gender issues in the pharmacotherapy of opioid-addicted women: buprenorphine. J Addict Dis. 2010;29:217-230.
62. Gobbi G, Slater S, Boucher N, et al. Neurochemical and psychotropic effects of bupropion in healthy male subjects. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;23:233-239. (Pubitemid 36807790)
63. Zanger UM, Klein K, Saussele T, et al. Polymorphic CYP2B6: molecular mechanisms and emerging clinical significance. Pharmacogenomics. 2007;8:743-759. (Pubitemid 47288975)
64. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Wellbutrin. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:2851-2854.
65. Spina E, Santoro V, D'Arrigo C. Clinically relevant pharmacokinetic drug interactions with second-generation antidepressants: an update. Clin Ther. 2008;30:1206-1227.
66. Johnston JA, Fiedler-Kelly J, Glover ED, et al. Relationship between drug exposure and the efficacy and safety of bupropion sustained release for smoking cessation. Nicotine Tob Res. 2001;3:131-140. (Pubitemid 32621774)
67. Preskorn SH, Fleck RJ, Schroeder DH. Therapeutic drug monitoring of bupropion. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:1690-1691.
68. Tracey JA. Zyban-is there a cause for concern? Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2002;1:303-305.
69. Mercerolle M, Denooz R, Lachatre G, et al. A fatal case of bupropion (Zyban) overdose. J Anal Toxicol. 2008;32:192-196. (Pubitemid 351362756)
70. Schmitz JM, Sayre SL, Stotts AL, et al. Medication compliance during a smoking cessation clinical trial: a brief intervention using MEMS feedback. J Behav Med. 2005;28:139-147. (Pubitemid 40674973)
71. Hesse LM, He P, Krishnaswamy S, et al. Pharmacogenetic determinants of interindividual variability in bupropion hydroxylation by cytochrome P450 2B6 in human liver microsomes. Pharmacogenetics. 2004;14: 225-238. (Pubitemid 38530514)
72. Ulrich S, Danos P, Baumann B, et al. Serum concentration of chlormethiazole and therapeutic effect in acute alcohol withdrawal syndrome: an open clinical trial. Ther Drug Monit. 2002;24:446-454. (Pubitemid 34553215)
73. Distraneurin, Summary of Product Characteristics, Fachinfo-Service, Berlin, Germany, Accessed February 2011.
74. Herzler. Ü ber die Aussagesicherheit der Substanzidentifizierung mittels HPLC-DAD in der Systematischen Toxikologischen Analyse unter Verwendung einerselbsterstellten UV-Spektrenbibliothek mit 2.682 Einträgen. Dissertation. 2003.
75. Nation RL, Learoyd B, Barber J, et al. The pharmacokinetics of chlormethiazole following intravenous administration in the aged. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1976;10:407-415.
76. Morgan MY. The management of alcohol withdrawal using chlormethiazole. Alcohol Alcohol. 1995;30:771-774. (Pubitemid 26017477)
77. Lange-Asschenfeldt C, Muller MJ, Szegedi A, et al. Symptom-triggered versus standard chlormethiazole treatment of inpatient alcohol withdrawal: clinical implications from a chart analysis. Eur Addict Res. 2003; 9:1-7. (Pubitemid 36160291)
78. Petersen EN. The pharmacology and toxicology of disulfiram and its metabolites. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1992;369:7-13.
79. Johansson B. A review of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of disulfiram and its metabolites. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1992;369: 15-26.
80. Lauriault VV, Khan S, O'Brien PJ. Hepatocyte cytotoxicity induced by various hepatotoxins mediated by cytochrome P-450IIE1: protection with diethyldithiocarbamate administration. Chem Biol Interact. 1992; 81:271-289.
81. Madan A, Parkinson A, Faiman MD. Identification of the human P-450 enzymes responsible for the sulfoxidation and thiono-oxidation of diethyldithiocarbamate methyl ester: role of P-450 enzymes in disulfiram bioactivation. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998;22:1212-1219. (Pubitemid 28443143)
82. Frye RF, Branch RA. Effect of chronic disulfiram administration on the activities of CYP1A2, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, and N-acetyltransferase in healthy human subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;53:155-162. (Pubitemid 34264270)
83. Johnsen J, Stowell A, Morland J. Clinical responses in relation to blood acetaldehyde levels. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1992;70:41-45.
84. Faiman MD, Jensen JC, Lacoursiere RB. Elimination kinetics of disulfiram in alcoholics after single and repeated doses. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1984;36:520-526. (Pubitemid 15201164)
85. Neto D, Lambaz R, Tavares JE. Compliance with aftercare treatment, including disulfiram, and effect on outcome in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol Alcohol. 2007;42:604-609. (Pubitemid 350028204)
86. Beyeler C, Fisch HU, Preisig R. The disulfiram-alcohol reaction: factors determining and potential tests predicting severity. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1985;9:118-124. (Pubitemid 15064386)
87. Helander A, Lowenmo C, Johansson M. Distribution of acetaldehyde in human blood: effects of ethanol and treatment with disulfiram. Alcohol Alcohol. 1993;28:461-468. (Pubitemid 23242780)
88. Moore AA, Whiteman EJ, Ward KT. Risks of combined alcohol/medication use in older adults. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2007;5:64-74. (Pubitemid 47421554)
89. Kerkhof SC, de Doelder PF, Harinck HI, et al. Liver damage attributed to the use of disulfiram [in German]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1995;139: 2378-2381.
90. Eap CB, Buclin T, Baumann P. Interindividual variability of the clinical pharmacokinetics of methadone: implications for the treatment of opioid dependence. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:1153-1193. (Pubitemid 35398691)
91. Gerber JG, Rhodes RJ, Gal J. Stereoselective metabolism of methadone N-demethylation by cytochrome P4502B6 and 2C19. Chirality. 2004;16: 36-44. (Pubitemid 37532283)
92. Sullivan HR, Due SL. Urinary metabolites of dl-methadone in maintenance subjects. J Med Chem. 1973;16:909-913.
93. Eap CB, Broly F, Mino A, et al. Cytochrome P450 2D6 genotype and methadone steady-state concentrations. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001; 21:229-234. (Pubitemid 32221062)
94. Crettol S, Deglon JJ, Besson J, et al. Methadone enantiomer plasma levels, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, and CYP2C9 genotypes, and response to treatment. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;78:593-604. (Pubitemid 41773635)
95. Eap CB. On the usefulness of therapeutic drug monitoring of methadone. Eur Addict Res. 2000;6:31-33. (Pubitemid 30166959)
96. Bomsien S, Skopp G. An in vitro approach to potential methadone metabolic-inhibition interactions. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63: 821-827. (Pubitemid 47237898)
97. Eap CB, Bertschy G, Baumann P, et al. High interindividual variability of methadone enantiomer blood levels to dose ratios. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:89-90. (Pubitemid 28069044)
98. Fareed A, Casarella J, Amar R, et al. Methadone maintenance dosing guideline for opioid dependence, a literature review. J Addict Dis. 2010;29:1-14.
99. Caplehorn JR, Drummer OH. Methadone dose and post-mortem blood concentration. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2002;21:329-333.
100. Greenwald MK. Heroin craving and drug use in opioid-maintained volunteers: effects of methadone dose variations. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;10:39-46. (Pubitemid 34131017)
101. Li Y, Kantelip JP, Gerritsen-van Schieveen P, et al. Interindividual variability of methadone response: impact of genetic polymorphism. Mol Diagn Ther. 2008;12:109-124. (Pubitemid 351570866)
102. Chhabra S, Bull J. Methadone. Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2008;25: 146-150.
103. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Opioids. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:1825-1828.
104. Kirchmayer U, Davoli M, Verster A. Naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;2:CD001333.
105. Havemann-Reinecke U, Küfner H, Schneider U, et al. Post acute treatment of opiate dependence [in German]. In: Schmidt LG, Gastpar M, Falkai P et al, eds. Evidence-based Addiction Medicine. Guidelines for the Treatment of Substance Related Disorders: Cologne, Germany, Deutscher Ä rzte-Verlag, 2006:193-239.
106. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Revia. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:2227-2229.
107. Breyer-Pfaff U, Nill K. Carbonyl reduction of naltrexone and dolasetron by oxidoreductases isolated from human liver cytosol. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2004;56:1601-1606. (Pubitemid 39602003)
108. Bullingham RE, McQuay HJ, Moore RA. Clinical pharmacokinetics of narcotic agonist-antagonist drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1983;8:332-343. (Pubitemid 13069550)
109. Ferrari A, Bertolotti M, Dell'Utri A, et al. Serum time course of naltrexone and 6 beta-naltrexol levels during long-term treatment in drug addicts. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;52:211-220. (Pubitemid 28529579)
110. Brünen S, Kruger R, Finger S, et al. Determination of naltrexone and 6beta-naltrexol in human blood: comparison of high-performance liquid chromatography with spectrophotometric and tandem-mass-spectrometric detection. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2009;396:1249-1257.
111. Comer SD, Collins ED, Kleber HD, et al. Depot naltrexone: long-lasting antagonism of the effects of heroin in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002;159:351-360. (Pubitemid 34143359)
112. Verebey K, Volavka J, Mule SJ, et al. Naltrexone: disposition, metabolism, and effects after acute and chronic dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;20:315-328.
113. King AC, Volpicelli JR, Gunduz M, et al. Naltrexone biotransformation and incidence of subjective side effects: a preliminary study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1997;21:906-909. (Pubitemid 27355690)
114. Schmidt LG, Gastpar M, Falkai P, et al, eds. Evidenzbasierte Suchtmedizin Behandlungsleitlinie substanzbezogene Störungen. Kö ln: Deutscher Ä rzte-Verlag; 2006.
115. Porter SJ, Somogyi AA, White JM. Kinetics and inhibition of the formation of 6beta-naltrexol from naltrexone in human liver cytosol. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;50:465-471.
116. Bardo MT, Bhatnagar RK, Gebhart GF. Chronic naltrexone increases opiate binding in brain and produces supersensitivity to morphine in the locus coeruleus of the rat. Brain Res. 1983;289:223-234. (Pubitemid 14222523)
117. Kranzler HR, Stephenson JJ, Montejano L, et al. Persistence with oral naltrexone for alcohol treatment: implications for health-care utilization. Addiction. 2008;103:1801-1808.
118. Faessel HM, Gibbs MA, Clark DJ, et al. Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of the selective nicotinic receptor partial agonist, varenicline, in healthy smokers. J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;46:1439-1448. (Pubitemid 44704204)
119. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties Champix. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:555-558.
120. Weinshilboum R. Inheritance and drug response. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348:529-537. (Pubitemid 36159889)
121. Velligan DI,Weiden PJ, Sajatovic M, et al. The expert consensus guideline series: adherence problems in patients with serious and persistent mental illness. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70(suppl 4):1-46; quiz 47-48.
122. Demyttenaere K, Haddad P. Compliance with antidepressant therapy and antidepressant discontinuation symptoms. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2000;403:50-56.
123. Mushlin AI, Ruchlin HS, Callahan MA. Costeffectiveness of diagnostic tests. Lancet. 2001;358:1353-1355. (Pubitemid 33019212)
124. Schulz M, Schmoldt A. Therapeutic and toxic blood concentrations of more than 800 drugs and other xenobiotics. Pharmazie. 2003;58: 447-474. (Pubitemid 36869876)
125. Schulz E, Fleischhaker C, Remschmidt H. Determination of clozapine and its major metabolites in serum samples of adolescent schizophrenic patients by high-performance liquid chromatography. Data from a prospective clinical trial. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1995;28: 20-25.
126. Wright TM, Myrick H. Acamprosate: a new tool in the battle against alcohol dependence. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2006;2:445-453. (Pubitemid 46321874)
127. Kuhlman JJ Jr, Lalani S, Magluilo J Jr, et al. Human pharmacokinetics of intravenous, sublingual, and buccal buprenorphine. J Anal Toxicol. 1996; 20:369-378. (Pubitemid 26327458)
128. Ratz AE, Schlienger RG, Linder L, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of clomethiazole after oral and rectal administration in healthy subjects. Clin Ther. 1999;21:829-840. (Pubitemid 29291441)
129. Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties. Campral. Ottawa, Canada; Canadian Pharmacists Association; 2009:474-475.
130. Bullingham RE, McQuay HJ, Moore A, et al. Buprenorphine kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1980;28:667-672. (Pubitemid 11254168)
131. Zingmark PH, Ekblom M, Odergren T, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of clomethiazole and its effect on the natural course of sedation in acute stroke patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;56:173-183. (Pubitemid 36981432)
132. Centerholt C, Ekblom M, Odergren T, et al. Pharmacokinetics and sedative effects in healthy subjects and subjects with impaired liver function after continuous infusion of clomethiazole. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;59:117-122. (Pubitemid 36793723)
133. Moody DE, Chang Y, Huang W, et al. The in vivo response of novel buprenorphine metabolites, M1 and M3, to antiretroviral inducers and inhibitors of buprenorphine metabolism. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009;105:211-215.
134. Dyer KR, Foster DJ, White JM, et al. Steady-state pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in methadone maintenance patients: comparison of those who do and do not experience withdrawal and concentration-effect relationships. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1999;65:685-694. (Pubitemid 29294032)
135. Yuen KH, Peh KK, Billa N. Comparative bioavailability study of a generic naltrexone tablet preparation. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 1999;25: 353-356. (Pubitemid 29108683)
136. Johansson B. Plasma protein binding of disulfiram and its metabolite diethylthiocarbamic acid methyl ester. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1990;42: 806-807.
137. Abramson FP. Methadone plasma protein binding: alterations in cancer and displacement from alpha 1-acid glycoprotein. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1982;32:652-658. (Pubitemid 13096711)
138. Dunbar JL, Turncliff RZ, Hayes SC, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of extended-release injectable naltrexone (XR-NTX) in patients with alcohol dependence. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2007;68:862-870. (Pubitemid 350144495)
139. Pike MG, Mays DC, Macomber DW, et al. Metabolism of a disulfiram metabolite, S-methyl N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate, by flavin monooxygenase in human renal microsomes. Drug Metab Dispos. 2001;29: 127-132. (Pubitemid 32112925)
140. Obach RS, Reed-Hagen AE, Krueger SS, et al. Metabolism and disposition of varenicline, a selective alpha4beta2 acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, in vivo and in vitro. Drug Metab Dispos. 2006;34: 121-130. (Pubitemid 43042653)
141. Rostami-Hodjegan A, Amin AM, Spencer EP, et al. Influence of dose, cigarette smoking, age, sex, and metabolic activity on plasma clozapine concentrations: a predictive model and nomograms to aid clozapine dose adjustment and to assess compliance in individual patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004;24:70-78. (Pubitemid 38134168)
142. Williams GO. Management of depression in the elderly. Prim Care. 1989;16:451-474. (Pubitemid 19142995)
143. Bertolotti M, Ferrari A, Vitale G, et al. Effect of liver cirrhosis on the systemic availability of naltrexone in humans. J Hepatol. 1997;27: 505-511. (Pubitemid 27390898)