Irrigation Waters as a Source of Pathogenic Microorganisms in Produce. A Review

Advances in Agronomy

Volumn 113, Issue , 2011, Pages 73-138

  Pachepsky, Yakov ^a   Shelton, Daniel R ^a   McLain, Jean E T ^b   Patel, Jitendra ^a   Mandrell, Robert E ^c  

^a AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

^b US ARID LAND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

^c WESTERN REGIONAL RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Control of microbiological irrigation water quality; Environmental microbial reservoirs; Irrigation water quality; Microbial pathogens; Microbial risk assessment; Produce contamination; Water quality standards

Indexed keywords

EID: 80052936719     PISSN: 00652113     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-386473-4.00007-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (323)

1. Abulreesh H.H., Paget T.A., Goulder R. Campylobacter in waterfowl and aquatic environments: Incidence and methods of detection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40(23):7122-7131.
2. Ackers M.L., Mahon B.E., Leahy E., Goode B., Damrow T., Hayes P.S., Bibb D.H., Rice W.F., Barrett T.J., Hutwagner L., Griffin P.M., Slutsker L. An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections associated with leaf lettuce consumption. J. Infect. Dis. 1998, 177:1588-1593.
3. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Water Quality Requirements for Saskatchewan's Agri-Food Industry: Executive Summary 2007, http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?id=1189609405880&lang=eng.
4. Ait Melloul A., Hassani L. Salmonella infection in children from the wastewater-spreading zone of Marrakesh city (Morocco). J. Appl. Microbiol. 1999, 87:536-539.
5. Alberta Environment, Environmental Service, Environmental Sciences Division and Natural Resources Service, Water Management Division Surface Water Quality Guidelines for Use in Alberta. November 1999. Publication no. T/483. ISBN 0-7785-0897-8. Available at: 1999, http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/library/5713.pdf.
6. Aller J.Y., Kuznetsova M.R., Jahns C.J., Kemp P.F. The sea surface microlayer as a source of viral and bacterial enrichment in marine aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci. 2005, 36:801-812.
7. Alonso M.C., Dionisio L.P.C., Bosch A., Pereira de Moura B.S., Garcia-Rosado E., Borrego J.J. Microbiological quality of reclaimed water used for golf courses' irrigation. Water Sci. Technol. 2006, 54:109-117.
8. Al-Sa'ed R. Pathogens assessment in reclaimed effluent used for industrial crops irrigation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2007, 4:58-75.
9. Amerasinghe F.P., Indrajith N.G. Postirrigation breeding patterns of surface water mosquitoes in the Mahaweli Project, Sri Lanka, and comparisons with preceding developmental phases. J. Med. Entomol. 1994, 31:516-523.
10. An Y.-J., Kampbell D.H., Breidenbach J.P. Escherichia coli and total coliforms in water and sediments at lake marinas. Environ. Pollut. 2002, 120:771-778.
11. Anderson K.L., Whitlock J.E., Harwood V.J. Persistence and differential survival of fecal indicator bacteria in subtropical waters and sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:3041-3048.
12. Anonymous Water quality criteria for microbiological indicators: Overview report 1988, British Columbia, Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection, Resource Quality Section, Water Management Branch, Ministry of Environment and Parks, Available at:. http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/BCguidelines/microbiology.html.
13. Anonymous Manual, Guidelines for Water Reuse 1992, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C, EPA/624/R-92/004. Available at:. http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/claritgw?op-Display&document5clserv:ORD:2025;&rank54&template5epa.
14. Anonymous Georgia Department of Agriculture Farmers and Consumers Market Bull 2002, 85(40). Accessed 13 June 2004. Available at:. http://atlas2100.agr.state.ga.us/mbindex.html.
15. Anonymous Surface Water Quality Objectives. Interim Edition. EPB 356. 2006, Drinking Water Quality Section Saskatchewan Environment, Available at:. http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca/adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=768,760,253,94,88,Documents&MediaID=332&Filename=Surface+Water+Quality+Objectives.pdf&l=English.
16. Anonymous Code of good agricultural practices (GAP) for fresh fruits and vegetable farming Available at:. http://www.philexport.ph/sector/food/Code_of_GAP%20PHILGAP.pdf.
17. Anonymous Water Available at:. http://www.driscolls.com/growing/food-safety.php.
18. Aruscavage D., Miller S.A., Lewis Ivey M.L., Lee K., LeLeune J.T. Survival and dissemination of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on physically and biologically damaged lettuce plants. J. Food Prot. 2008, 71:2384-2388.
19. Arvanitidou M., Papa A., Constantinidis T.C., Danielides V., Katsouyannopolos V. The occurrence of Listeria spp. and Salmonella spp. in surface waters. Microbiol. Res. 1997, 152:395-397.
20. Ashbolt N.J., Grabow W.O.K., Snozzi M. Indicators of microbial water quality. Water quality: Guidelines, standards and health: Risk assessment and management for water related infectious diseases 2001, 289-316. IWA Publishing, London. L. Fewtrell, J. Bartram (Eds.).
21. Atwill R., Lewis D., Pereira M., Huerta M., Bond R., Ogata S., Bass P. Characterizing Freshwater Inflows and Sediment Reservoirs of Fecal Coliforms and E. coli at Five Estuaries in Northern California 2007, University of California School of Veterinary Medicine and Cooperative Extension in Sonoma and Marin Counties, Davis, CA. http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/filelibrary/2161/41255.pdf.
22. Axelsson-Olsson D., Olofsson J., Svensson L., Griekspoor P., Waldenström J., Ellström P., Olsen B. Amoebae and algae can prolong the survival of Campylobacter species in co-culture. Exp. Parasitol. 2010, 126:59-64.
23. Bahri A., Brissaud F. Setting up microbiological water reuse guidelines for the Mediterranean. Water Sci. Technol. 2004, 50:39-46.
24. Bai S., Lung W.S. Modeling sediment impact on the transport of fecal bacteria. Water Res. 2005, 39:5232-5240.
25. Banning N., Toze S., Mee B. Persistence of biofilm-associated Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in groundwater and treated effluent in a laboratory model system. Microbiology 2003, 149:47-55.
26. Barak J.D., Liang A., Narm K.-E. Differential attachment and subsequent contamination of agricultural crops by Salmonella enterica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74:5568-5570.
27. Barcina I., Gonzales J.M., Iriberri J., Egea L. Survival strategy of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis in illuminated fresh and marine systems. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1990, 68:189-198.
28. Barker J., Humphrey T.J., Brown M.W.R. Survival of Escherichia coli O157 in a soil protozoan: Implications for disease. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1999, 173:291-295.
29. Barker-Reid F., Harapas D., Engleitner S., Kreidl S., Holmes R., Faggian R. Persistence of Escherichia coli on injured iceberg lettuce in the field, overhead irrigated with contaminated water. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:458-464.
30. Berg G., Eberl L., Hartmann A. The rhizosphere as a reservoir for opportunistic human pathogenic bacteria. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 7:1673-1685.
31. Bernstein N., Sela S., Neder-Lavon S. Effect of irrigation regimes on persistence Salmonella enterica serovar Newport in small experimental pots designed for plant cultivation. Irrig. Sci. 2007, 26:1-8.
32. Bernstein N., Sela S., Neder-Lavon S. Assessment of contamination potential of lettuce by Salmonella enterica serovar Newport added to the plant growing medium. J. Food Prot. 2007, 70:1717-1722.
33. Berry D., Xi C., Raskin L. Microbial ecology of drinking water distribution systems. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2006, 17:297-302.
34. Berry E.D., Woodbury B.L., Nienaber J.A., Eigenberg R.A., Wells J.E. Incidence and persistence of zoonotic bacterial and protozoan pathogens in a beef cattle feedlot runoff control-vegetative treatment system. J. Environ. Qual. 2007, 36:1873-1882.
35. Beuchat L.R. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/surfac_decon/en/surface_decon.pdf.
36. Bichai F., Payment P., Barbeau B. Protection of waterborne pathogens by higher organisms in drinking water: A review. Can. J. Microbiol. 2008, 54:509-524.
37. Blumenthal U.J., Peasey A. Critical Review of Epidemiological Evidence of the Health Effects of Wastewater and Excreta use in Agriculture 2002, London School of Hygeienc and Tropical Medicine, London.
38. Blumenthal U.J., Mara D.D., Peasey A., Ruiz-Palacios G., Stott R. Guidelines for the microbiological quality of treated wastewater used in agriculture: Recommendations for revising WHO guidelines. Bull. World Health Org. 2000, 78:1104-1116.
39. Boehm A.B., Grant S.B., Kim J.H., Mowbray S.L., McGee C.D., Clark C.D., Foley D.M., Wellman D.E. Decadal and shorter period variability of surf zone water quality at Huntington Beach, California. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36:3885-3892.
40. Bogosian G., Sammons L.E., Morris P.J.L., O'Neil J.P., Heitkamp M.A., Weber D.B. Death of the Escherichia coli K-12 strain W3110 in soil and water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62:4114-4120.
41. Boyer D.G. Fecal coliform dispersal by rain splash on slopes. Agr. Forest meteorol. 2008, 148:1395-1400.
42. Boyle M., Sichel C., Fernández-Ibáñez P., Arias-Quiroz G.B., Iriarte-Puña M., Mercado A., Ubomba-Jaswa E., McGuigan K.G. Bactericidal effect of solar water disinfection under real sunlight conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74:2997-3001.
43. Brandl M.T. Fitness of Human Enteric Pathogens on Plants and Implications for Food. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 2006, 44:367-392.
44. Brandl M.T., Haxo A.F., Bates A.H., Mandrell R.E. Comparison of survival of Campylobacter jejuni in the phyllosphere with that in the rhizosphere of spinach and radish plants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 70:1182-1189.
45. Brandl M.T., Rosenthal B.M., Haxo A.F., Berk S.G. Enhanced survival of Salmonella enterica in vesicles released by a soilborne Tetrahymena species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:1562-1569.
46. Buckley R., Clough E., Warnken W., Wild C. Coliform bacteria in streambed sediment in a subtropical rainforest conservation reserve. Water Res. 1998, 32:1852-1856.
47. Budzińska K., Brudnicki A., Traczykowski A. Przezywalność Salmonella sp. w wodach powierzchniowych w zmiennych warunkach termicznych. [Survival of Salmonella sp. in surface waters under variable thermal conditions]. Rocznik Ochrona Srodowiska 2009, 11:935-943.
48. Bukhari Z., Jjemba P.K., LeChevallier M.W. Recommendations for Research in Microbiology and Disinfection for the WateReuse Foundation 2010, WateReuse Foundation, Alexandria, VA, (22314).
49. Byappanahalli M.N., Fujioka R.S. Evidence that tropical soil environment can support the growth of Escherichia coli. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 38:171-174.
50. Byappanahalli M., Fowler M., Shively D., Whitman R. Ubiquity and persistence of Escherichia coli within a midwestern stream. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69:4549-4555.
51. Byappanahalli M.N., Whitman R.L., Shively D.A., Sadowsky M.J., Ishii S. Population structure, persistence, and seasonality of autochthonous Escherichia coli in temperate, coastal forest soil from a Great Lakes watershed. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 8:504-513.
52. Byappanahalli M.N., Sawdey R., Ishii S., Shively D.A., Ferguson J.A., Whitman R.L., Sadowsky M.J. Seasonal stability of Cladophora-associated Salmonella in Lake Michigan watersheds. Water Res. 2009, 43:806-814.
53. Cahoon L.B., Song B. Microbiological threats to water quality. Handbook of Water Purity and Quality 2009, 181-195. Academic Press. S. Ahuja (Ed.).
54. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of agricultural water uses. Canadian environmental quality guidelines 1999, 2. CCME Publications, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
55. Cararo D.C., Botrel T.A., Hills D.J., Leverenz H.L. Analysis of clogging in drip emitters during wastewater irrigation. Appl. Eng. Agr. 2006, 22:251-257.
56. Carr G.M., Morin A., Chambers P.A. Bacteria and algae in stream periphyton along a nutrient gradient. Freshwat. Biol. 2005, 50:1337-1350.
57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Outbreak of Salmonella serotype Saintpaul infections associated with multiple raw produce items-United States, 2008. MMWR 2008, 57:929-934.
58. Chandran A., Hatha M.A.A. Relative survival of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium in a tropical estuary. Water Res. 2005, 39:1397-1403.
59. Chawla R., Masterson B., Meijer W.G., Wilson B. Prospects for microbial water quality management based on molecular biologic analysis of pathogens on sediments and suspended solids 2003, Dublin, 13, 13-23, 13-27.
60. Chigor V.N., Umoh V.J., Smith S.I. Occurrence of Escherichia coli O157 in a river used for fresh produce irrigation in Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010, 9:178-182.
61. Cho K.H., Pachepsky Y.A., Kim J.H., Guber A.K., Shelton D.R., Rowland R. Release of Escherichia coli from the bottom sediment in a first-order creek: Experiment and reach-specific modeling. J. Hydrol. 2010, 391:322-332.
62. Cifuentes E. The epidemiology of enteric infections in agricultural communities exposed to wastewater irrigation: Perspectives for risk control. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 1998, 8:203-213.
63. Cifuentes E., Blumenthal U., Ruiz-Palacios G., Bennett S., Quigley M. Health risks in agricultural villages practicing wastewater irrigation in central Mexico: Perspectives for protection. Schriftenr. Ver. Wasser Boden Lufthyg. 2000, 105:249-256.
64. Cinotto P.J. Occurrence of Fecal-Indicator Bacteria and Protocols for Identification of Fecal Contamination Sources in Selected Reaches of the West Branch Brandywine Creek, Chester County, Pennsylvania 2005, U. S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5039; 91 p.
65. Cizek A.R., Characklis G.W., Krometis L.A., Hayes J.A., Simmons O.D., Di Lonardo S., Alderisio K.A., Sobsey M.D. Comparing the partitioning behavior of Giardia and Cryptosporidium with that of indicator organisms in stormwater runoff. Water Res. 2008, 42:4421-4438.
66. Clawson J. The Use of Off-stream Water Developments and Various Water Gap Configurations to Modify the Watering Behavior of Grazing Cattle 1993, M. Sc. Thesis, Oregon State University, Available at:. http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/jspui/bitstream/1957/9749/1/Clawson_Jeffrey_E_1993.pdf.
67. Close M., Dann R., Ball A., Pirie R., Savill M., Smith Z. Microbial groundwater quality and its health implications for a border-strip irrigated dairy farm catchment, South Island, New Zealand. J. Water Health 2008, 6:83-98.
68. Cook K.L., Bolster C.H. Survival of Campylobacter jejuni and Escherichia coli in groundwater during prolonged starvation at low temperatures. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2007, 103:573-583.
69. Cooley M., Carychao D., Crawford-Miksza L., Jay M.T., Myers C., Rose C., Keys C., Farrar J., Mandrell R.E. Incidence and tracking of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a major produce production region in California. PLoS One 2007, 2:1159. Available at:. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001159, 10.1371/journal.pone.0001159.
70. Crabill C., Donald R., Snelling J., Foust R., Southam G. The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality in Oak Creek, Arizona. Water Res. 1999, 33:2163-2171.
71. Craig D.L., Fallowfield H.J., Cromar N.J. Use of microcosms to determine persistence of Escerichia coli in recreational coastal water and sediment and validation with in situ measurements. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 96:922-930.
72. Craun G.F., Berger P.S., Calderon R.L. Coliform bacteria and waterborne disease outbreaks. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 1997, 89:96-104.
73. Critzer F.J., Doyle M.P. Microbial ecology of foodborne pathogens associated with produce. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2010, 21:125130.
74. Crohn D.M., Bianchi M.L. Research priorities for coordinating management of food safety and water quality. J. Environ. Qual. 2008, 37:1411.
75. Crokett C.S. The Significance of Streambed Sediments as a Reservoir of Cryptosporidium Oocysts. 2004, Ph. D. thesis. Drexel University.
76. Cross P.M. Review of irrigation district water quality 1997, CAESA, Edmonton, AB, Canada, Report prepared for Canada-Alberta Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture (CAESA) Program by Madawaska Consulting, April 1997.
77. CSFSGLLGSC Commodity Specific Food Safety Guidelines for the Lettuce and Leafy Greens Supply Chain, 1st edn 2009, http://www2.wga.com/DocumentLibrary/scienceandtech/LGMAAcceptedGAPs07.10.09.pdf.
78. Davies C.M., Long J.A.H., Donald M., Ashbolt N.J. Survival of fecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1995, 61:1888-1896.
79. Davies-Colley R., Nagels J., Donnison A., Muirhead R. Flood flushing of bugs in agricultural streams. Water Atmosphere 2004, 12:20. (NIWA).
80. Dehghanisanij H., Yamamoto T., Rasiah V., Utsunomiya J., Inous M. Impact of biological clogging agents on filter and emitter discharge characteristics of microirrigtion systems. Irrig. Drain. 2004, 53:363-373.
81. Delaquis P., Bach S., Dinu L.-D. Behavior of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Leafy Vegetables. J. Food Prot. 2007, 70:1966-1974.
82. Desmarais T.R., Solo-Gabriele H.M., Palmer C.J. Influence of soil on fecal indicator organisms in a tidally influenced subtropical environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68:1165-1172.
83. Dewedar A., Bahgat M. Fate of fecal coliforms in the waste water retention reservoir containing Lemma Gibba L. Water Res. 1995, 29:2598-2600.
84. Diaz F.J., O'Geen A.T., Dahlgren R.A. Efficacy of constructed wetlands for removal of bacterial contamination from agricultural return flows. Agr. Water Manag. 2010, 97:1813-1821.
85. DiGiovanni G.D. Drought May Concentrate Pathogens in Surface Water. Southwest Hydrol. 2004, 3:24-26.
86. Droppo I.G., Ongley E.D. Flocculation of suspended sediment in rivers of southeastern Canada. Water Res. 1994, 28:1799-1809.
87. Droppo I.G., Liss S.N., Williams D., Nelson T., Jaskot C., Trapp B. Dynamic existence of waterborne pathogens within river sediment compartments. Implications for water quality regulatory affairs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:1737-1743.
88. Duan H., Chai T., Cai Y., Zhong Z., Yao M., Zhang X. Transmission identification of Escherichia coli aerosol in chicken houses to their environments using ERIC-PCR. Sci. China C Life Sci. 2008, 51:164-173.
89. Duffy E.A., Lucia L.M., Kells J.M., Castillo A., Pillai S.D., Acuff G.R. Concentration of Escherichia coli and genetic diversity and antibiotic resistance profiling of Salmonella isolated from irrigation water, packing shed equipment, and fresh produce in Texas. J. Food Prot. 2005, 68:70-79.
90. Duris J.W., Haack S.K., Fogarty L.R. Gene and antigen markers of Shiga-toxin producing E. coli from Michigan and Indiana river water: Occurrence and relation to recreational water quality criteria. J. Environ. Qual. 2009, 38:1878-1886.
91. Dutka B.J., Kwan K.K. Bacterial die-off and stream transport studies. Water Res. 1980, 14:909-915.
92. Easton J.H., Gauthier J.J., Lalor M.M., Pitt R.E. Die-off of pathogenic E. coli O157:H7 in sewage contaminated waters. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2005, 41:1187-1193.
93. Eisnor J.D., Gagnon G.A. A framework for the implementation and design of pilot-scale distribution systems. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. 2003, 52:501-519.
94. Enriquez C., Alum A., Suarez-Rey E.M., Choi C.Y., Oron G., Gerba C.P. Bacteriophages MS2 and PRD1 in Turfgrass by Subsurface Drip Irrigation. J. Environ. Eng. 2003, 129:852-857.
95. Ensink J.H.J., Brooker S., Cairncross S., Scott C.A. Wastewater use in India: The impact of irrigation weirs on water quality and farmer health 2006, 15-18. Available at:. http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/32/Ensink.pdf.
96. Erickson M.C., Webb C.W., Diaz-Perez J.C., Phatak S.C., Silvoy J.J., Davey L., Payton A.S., Liao J., Ma L., Doyle M.P. Infrequent internalization of Escherichia coli O157:H7 into field-grown leafy greens. J. Food Prot. 2010, 73:500-506.
97. Exner M.E., Spalding R.F. Ground-water contamination and well construction in southeast Nebraska (USA). Ground Water 1985, 23:26-34.
98. Eyles R., Niyogi D., Townsend C., Benwell G., Weinstein P. Spatial and temporal patterns of Campylobacter contamination underlying public health risk in the Taieri River, New Zealand. J. Environ. Qual. 2003, 32:1820-1828.
99. Fallowfield H.J., Cromar N.J., Evison L.M. Coliform die-off rate constants in a high rate algal pond and the effect of operational and environmental variables. Water Sci. Technol. 1999, 34:141-147.
100. Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce 2009, Wiley-Blackwell-IFT Press. X. Fan, B.A. Niemira, C.J. Doona, F. Feeherry, R.B. Gravani (Eds.).
101. FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization) Microbiological Hazards in Fresh Leafy Vegetables and Herbs: Meeting Report 2008, Microbiological Risk Assessment Series No. 14. Rome. 151 pp.
102. Ferguson C.M., Coote B.G., Ashbolt N.J., Stevenson I.M. Relationships between indicators, pathogens and water quality in an estuarine system. Water Res. 1996, 30:2045-2054.
103. Ferguson C., de Roda Husman A.M., Altavilla N., Deere D. Fate and transport of surface water pathogens in watersheds. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 33:299-361.
104. Fewtrell L., Bartram J. Water quality: Guidelines, Standards, and Health: Risk Assessment and Management for Water-Related Infectious Diseases 2001, IWA Publishing, London.
105. Flint K.P. The long-term survival of Escherichia coli in river water. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1987, 63:261-270.
106. Fonseca J.M., Fallon S.D., Sanchez C.A., Nolte K.D. Escherichia coli survival in lettuce fields following its introduction through different irrigation systems. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2011, 110:893-902.
107. Food Safety Authority of Ireland Code of Practice for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Supply Chain in Ireland. 2001, Dublin.
108. Gannon J.J., Busse M.K., Schillinger J.E. Fecal coliform disappearance in a river impoundment. Water Res. 1983, 17:1595-1601.
109. Gannon V.P., Graham T.A., Read S., Ziebell K., Muckie A., Mori J., Thomas J., Selinger B., Townshend I., Bryne J. Bacterial pathogens in rural water supplies in southern Alberta, Canada. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2004, 67:1643-1653.
110. Garzio A. Survival of E. coli delivered with manure to stream sediment 2009, Environmental Science and Policy Honors Thesis. University of Maryland, College Park.
111. Garzio-Hadzick A., Shelton D., Hill R.L., Pachepsky Y.A., Guber A.K., Rowland R. Survival of manure-borne E. coli in streambed sediment: Effects of temperature and sediment properties. Water Res. 2010, 44:2753-2762.
112. Geldreich E. Applying bacteriological parameters to recreational water quality. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 1970, 62:113-120.
113. Geldreich E.E. Microbial Quality of Water Supply in Distribution Systems 1996, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.
114. Gerba C.P. The role of water and water testing in produce safety. Microbial safety of fresh produce 2009, 129-142. Wiley. X. Fan, B.A. Niemira, C.J. Doona, F.E. Feeherty, R.B. Gravani (Eds.).
115. Gerba C.P., Rose J.B. International guidelines for water recycling: Microbiological considerations. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 3:311-316.
116. Gerba C.P., Smith J.E. Sources of pathogenic microorganisms and their fate during land application of wastes. J. Environ. Qual. 2005, 34:42-48.
117. Giaouris E., Chorianopoulos N., Nychas G.J.E. Effect of Temperature, pH, and Water Activity on Biofilm Formation by Salmonella enterica Enteritidis PT4 on Stainless Steel Surfaces as Indicated by the Bead Vortexing Method and Conductance Measurements. J. Food Prot. 2005, 68:2149-2154.
118. Giddings E.M., Oblinger C.J. Fecal-Indicator Bacteria in the Newfound Creek Watershed, Western North Carolina, During a High and Low Streamflow Condition, 2003 2004, U. S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5257. Accessed January 18, 2009.
119. Gombas D. Fresh Tomato Food Safety Research Needs Available at:. http://jifsan.umd.edu/docs/Tomato/Fresh_Tomato_Food_Safety_Research_Needs.pdf.
120. Gomes C., Da Silva P., Moreira R.G., Castell-Perez E., Ellis A., Pendleton M. Understanding E. coli internalization in lettuce leaves for optimization of irradiation treatment. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2009, 135:238-247.
121. Gorski L., Parker C.T., Liang A., Cooley M.B., Jay-Russell M.T., Gordus A.G., Atwill E.R., Mandrell R.E. Prevalence, distribution and diversity of Salmonella enterica in a major produce region of California. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2011, 77:2734-2748.
122. Goyal S.M., Gerba C.P., Melnick G.L. Occurrence and distribution of bacterial indicators and pathogens in canal communities along the Texas Coast. Appl. Environ. Microbial. 1977, 43:139-149.
123. Greene S.K., Daly E.R., Talbot E.A., Demma L.J., Holzbauer N., Patel N.J., Hill T.A., Walderhaug M.A., Hoekstra R., Lynch M.F., Painter J.A. Recurrent multistate outbreak of Salmonella Newport associated with tomatoes from contaminated fields, 2005. Epidemiol. Infect. 2008, 136:157-165.
124. Grossart H.-P., Dziallas C., Leunert F., Tang K.W. Bacteria dispersal by hitchhiking on zooplankton. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107:11959-11964.
125. Groves S., Davies N., Aitken M. A Review of the Use of Water in UK Agriculture and the Potential Risks to Food Safety. 2002, Report B17001. Food Standards Agency, London, Available at:. http://www.foodbase.org.uk/results.php?f_report_id=194.
126. Guber A.K., Shelton D.R., Pachepsky Ya.A Transport and retention of manure-borne coliforms in undisturbed soil columns. Vadose Zone J. 2005, 4:828-837.
127. Guo X., Chen J.R., Brackett R.E., Beuchat L.R. Survival of Salmonellae on and in tomato plants from the time of inoculation at flowering and early stages of fruit development through fruit ripening. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67:4760-4764.
128. Haas C.N., Rose J.B., Gerba C.P. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment 1999, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
129. Habimana O., Meyrand M., Meylheuc T., Kulakauskas S., Briandet R. Genetic features of resident biofilms determine attachment of Listeria monocytogenes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75:7814-7821.
130. Haley B.J., Cole D.J., Lipp E.K. Distribution, diversity, and seasonality of waterborne Salmonellae in a rural watershed. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75:1248-1255.
131. Haller L., Poté J., Loizeau J.L., Wildi W. Distribution and survival of faecal indicator bacteria in the sediments of the Bay of Vidy, Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Ecol. Indic. 2009, 9:540-547.
132. Hamilton A.J., Stagnitti F., Premier R., Boland A.-M., Hale G. Quantitative microbial risk assessment models for consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with reclaimed water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72:3284-3290.
133. Haramoto E., Katayama H., Oguma K., Yamashita H., Tajima A., Nakajima H., Ohgaki S. Seasonal profiles of human noroviruses and indicator bacteria in a wastewater treatment plant in Tokyo, Japan. Water Sci. Technol. 2006, 54(11-12):301-308.
134. Hartke T., Ressmann R., Duran F., Welsh R., Sternes K. Presence of pathogenic bacteria in the surface water of the Rio Grande basin 2005, http://www.rivers.txstate.edu/rg/resources/Sternes__RGB_Pathogens.Pdf.
135. Harwood V., Levine A.D., Scott T.M., Chivukula V., Lukasik J., Farrah S.R., Rose J.B. Validity of the indicator organism paradigm for pathogen reduction in reclaimed water and public health protection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:3163-3170.
136. Heaton J.C., Jones K. Microbial contamination of fruit and vegetables and the behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere: A review. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 104:613-626.
137. Hellweger F.L., Bucci V., Litman M.R., Gu A.Z., Onnis-Hayden A. Biphasic decay kinetics of fecal bacteria in surface water not a density effect. J. Environ. Eng. 2009, 135:372-376.
138. Herwaldt B.L. Cyclospora cayetanensis: A review, focusing on the outbreaks of cyclosporiasis in the 1990s. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2000, 31:1040-1057.
139. Higgins J., Warnken J., Teasdale P.R., Arthur J.M. Decline in recycled water quality during short-term storage in open ponds. J. Water Health 2009, 7:597-608.
140. Hillborn E.D., Mermin J.H., Mshar P.A., Hadler J.L., Voetsch A., Wojtkunski C., Swartz M., Mshar R., Lambert-Fair M.A., Farrar J.A., Glynn M.K., Slutsker L. A multistate outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections associated with consumption of mesclun lettuce. Arch. Int. Med. 1999, 159:1758-1764.
141. Hoar B.R., Paul R.P., Siembieda J., das Gracas Pereira M., Atwill Giardia duodenalis in feedlot cattle from the central and western United States E. R. BMC Vet. Res. 2009, 5:37.
142. Howard I., Espigares E., Lardelli P., Martin J.L., Espigares M. Evaluation of microbiological and physicochemical indicators for wastewater treatment. Environ. Toxicol. 2004, 19(3):241-249.
143. Hunter C., McDonald A., Bevin K. Input of fecal coliforms bacteria to an upland stream channel in the Yorkshire Deales. Water Resour. Res. 1992, 28:1869-1876.
144. Hussong D., Damare J.M., Limpert R.J., Sladen W.J.L., Weiner R.M., Colwell R.R. Microbial impact of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and whistling swans (Cygnus columbianus columbianus) on aquatic ecosystems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1979, 37:14-20.
145. Hutchison M.L., Walters L.D., Moore A., Thomas D.J.I., Avery S.M. Fate of pathogens present in livestock wastes spread to fescue plots. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:691-696.
146. Jablasone J., Brovko L.Y., Griffiiths M.W. The potential for transfer of Salmonella from irrigation water to tomatoes. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2004, 84:287-289.
147. Jacob M.E., Callaway T.R., Nagaraja T.G. Dietary interactions and interventions affecting Escherichia coli O157 colonization and shedding in cattle. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 2009, 6:785-792.
148. Jamieson T., Gordon R., Bezanson G., Cochrane L., Stratton G., Havard P. What You Should Know About Irrigation Water Quality Safety 2002, http://nsac.ca/eng/outreach/Irrigationwaterquality.pdf.
149. Jamieson R.C., Joy D.M., Lee H., Kostaschuk R., Gordon R.J. Persistence of enteric bacteria in alluvial streams. J. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2004, 3:203-212.
150. Jamieson R.C., Joy D.M., Lee H., Kostaschuk R., Gordon R.J. Transport and deposition of sediment-associated Escherichia coli in natural streams. Water Res. 2005, 39:2665-2675.
151. Jeng H.A.C., England A.J., Bakeer R.M., Bradford H.B. Impact of urban stormwater runoff on estuarine environmental quality. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2005, 63:513-526.
152. Jjemba P.K., Weinrich L.A., Cheng W., Giraldo E., LeChevallier M.W. Regrowth of potential opportunistic pathogens and algae in reclaimed water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2010, 76:4169-4178.
153. Johnson G. Water Testing for Produce Food Safety 2009, http://agdev.anr.udel.edu/weeklycropupdate/?p=734.
154. Johnson J.Y., Thomas J.E., Graham T.A., Townshend I., Byrne J., Selinger L.B., Gannon V.P. Prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. in surface waters of southern Alberta and its relation to manure sources. Can. J. Microbiol. 2003, 49:326-335.
155. Johnson T.B., McKay L.D., Layton A.C., Jones S.W., Johnson G.C., Cashdollar J.L., Dahling D.R., Villegas L.F., Shay Fout G., Williams D.W., Sayler G. Viruses and bacteria in karst and fractured rock aquifers in East Tennessee, USA. Ground Water 2010, 49(1):98-110.
156. Kabagambe E.K., Wells S.J., Garber L.P., Salman M.D., Wagner B., Fedorka-Cray P.J. Risk factors for fecal shedding of Salmonella in 91 US dairy herds in 1996. Prev. Vet. Med. 2000, 43:177-194.
157. Karim M.R., Manshadi F.D., Karpiscak M.M., Gerba C.P. The persistence and removal of enteric pathogens in constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2004, 38:1831-1837.
158. Katzenelson E., Buium I., Shuval H.I. Risk of communicable disease infection associated with wastewater irrigation in agricultural settlements. Science 1976, 194:944-946.
159. Kavka G.G.D., Kasimir D., Farnleitner A.H. Microbiological water quality of the River Danube (km 2581-km 15): Longitudinal variation of pollution as determined by standard parameters 2006, 415-421.
160. Kay D., Edwards A.C., Ferrier R.C., Francis C., Kay C., Rushby L., Watkins J., McDonald A.T., Wyer M., Crowther J., Wilkinson J. Catchment microbial dynamics: The emergence of a research agenda. Progr. Phys. Geogr. 2007, 31:59-76.
161. Kay D., Crowther J., Stapleton C.M., Wyer M.D., Fewtrell L., Edwards A., Francis C.A., McDonald A.T., Watkins J., Wilkinson J. Faecal indicator organism concentrations in sewage and treated effluents. Water Res. 2008, 42:442-554.
162. Keraita B., Konradsen F., Drechsel P., Abaido R.C. Reducing microbial contamination on wastewater-irrigated lettuce by cessation of irrigation before harvesting. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2007, 12:8-14.
163. Keraita B., Konradsen F., Drechsel P. Farm-based measures for reducing microbiological health risks for consumers from informal wastewater-irrigated agriculture. Wastewater irrigation and health. Assessing and Mitigating Risk in Low-income Countries 2010, 189-209. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-149129-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html, P. Drechsel, C.A. Scott, L. Rashid-Sally, M. Redwood, A. Bahri (Eds.).
164. Kim J.-W., Pachepsky Y.A., Shelton D.R., Coppock C. Effect of streambed bacteria release on E. coli concentrations: Monitoring and modeling with the modified SWAT. Ecol. Model. 2010, 221:1592-1604.
165. King C.H., Shotts E.B., Wooley R.E., Porter K.G. Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54:3023-3033.
166. Klayman B.J., Volden P.A., Stewart P.S., Camper A.K. Escherichia coli 0157:H7 requires colonizing partner to adhere and persist in a capillary flow cell. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:2105-2111.
167. Koirala S.R., Gentry R.W., Perfect E., Schwartz J.S., Sayler G.S. Temporal variation and persistence of bacteria in streams. J. Environ. Qual. 2008, 37:1559-1566.
168. Korhonen L.K., Martikainen P.J. Survival of Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni in untreated and filtered lake water. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1991, 71:379-382.
169. Kramer M.H., Herwaldt B.L., Craun G.F., Calderon R.L., Juranek D.D. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks: United States, 1993-4. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 1996, 45:1-33.
170. Kroupitski Y., Golberg D., Belausov E., Pinto R., Swartzberg D., Granot D., Sela S. Internalization of Salmonella enterica in leaves is induced by light and involves chemotaxis and penetration through open stomata. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75:6076-6086.
171. Kroupitski Y., Pinto R., Brandl M.T., Belausov E., Sela S. Interactions of Salmonella enterica with lettuce leaves. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2009, 106:1876-1885.
172. Ksoll W.B., Ishii S., Sadowsky M.J., Hicks R.E. Presence and sources of fecal coliform bacteria in epilithic periphyton communities of Lake Superior. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007, 73:3771-3778.
173. Laliberte P., Grimes D.J. Survival of Escherichia coli in lake bottom sediment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1982, 73(3):623-628.
174. Lapidot A., Yaron S. Transfer of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from contaminated irrigation water to parsley is dependent on curli and cellulose, the biofilm matrix components. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72(3):618-623.
175. Lau N.J., Ashbolt N.J. The role of biofilms and protozoa in Legionella pathogenesis: Implications for drinking water. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2009, 107:368-378.
176. Lazarova V., Manem J. Biofilm characterization and activity analysis in water and wastewater treatment. Water Res. 1995, 29:2227-2245.
177. LeChevallier M.W., Babcock T.M., Lee R.G. Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987, 53:2714-2724.
178. Leifert C., Ball K., Volakakis N., Cooper C. Control of enteric pathogens in ready-to-eat vegetable crop in organic and 'low input' production systems: A HACCP-based approach. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 105(4):931-950.
179. Lund V. Evaluation of E. coli as an indicator for the presence of Campylobacter jejuni and Yersinia enterocolitica in chlorinated and untreated oligotrophic lake water. Water Res. 1996, 30:1528-1534.
180. Macarisin D., Bauchan G., Fayer R. Spinacia oleracea L. leaf stomata harboring Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: A potential threat to food safety. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2010, 76:555-559.
181. Maier S.H. Modeling water quality for water distribution systems 1999, Ph. D. Thesis. Brunel University, Uxbridge. United Kingdom.
182. Maïga Y., Wethe J., Denyigba K., Ouattara A.S. The impact of pond depth and environmental conditions on sunlight inactivation of Escherichia coli and enterococci in wastewater in a warm climate. Can. J. Microbiol. 2009, 55:1364-1374.
183. Mains C. Biofilm Control in Distribution Systems. Vol. 8, Issue 2, 4 pp. 2008, National Environmental Services Center at West Virginia University, Available at:. http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/biofilm_DWFSOM124.pdf.
184. Mains C. Biofilm Control in Distribution Systems 2009, National Environmental Services Center: Virginia Tech. http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/biofilm_DWFSOM124.pdf.
185. Mancini L. Numerical estimates of coliform mortality rates under various conditions. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 1978, 50:2477-2484.
186. Mandrell R.E. Tracing pathogens in fruit and vegetable production chains. Tracing pathogens in the food chain 2011, 548-595. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, UK. S. Brul, P.M. Fratamico, T. McMeekin (Eds.).
187. Mandrell R.E., Gorski L., Brandl M.T. Attachment of microorganisms to fresh produce. Microbiology of Fruits and Vegetables 2006, 33-74. CRC, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL. G.M. Sapers, J.R. Gorny, A.E. Yousef (Eds.).
188. Mara D. Quantitative Microbial Risk Analysis: Wastewater Use in Agriculture 2010, http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/~cen6ddm/QMRA.html.
189. Mara D.D., Silva S.A. Removal of intestinal nematode eggs in tropical waste stabilization ponds. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1986, 89:71-74.
190. Mara D.D., Sleigh A. Estimation of Ascaris infection risks in children under 15 from the consumption of wastewater-irrigated carrots. J. Water Health 2009, 8:35-38.
191. Mara D., Sleigh A. Estimation of norovirus and Ascaris infection risks to urban farmers in developing countries using wastewater for crop irrigation. J. Water Health 2010, 8:572-576.
192. Marr B. Principles for Preparing Water Quality Objectives in British Columbia 2001, Publication of the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. Government of British Columbia, Canada.
193. Marshall M.M., Naumovitz D., Ortega Y., Sterling C.R. Waterborne protozoan pathogens. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1997, 10(1):67-85.
194. Materon L.A., Martinez-Garcia M., McDonald V. Identification of sources of microbial pathogens on cantaloupe rinds from pre-harvest to post-harvest operations. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2007, 23:1281-1287.
195. McFarland M.J., Sanderson M.A., McFarland A.M.S. Wastewater and reclaimed irrigation water. Design and operation of farm irrigation systems 2007, 754-798. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 2nd ed. G.J. Hoffman, R.J. Evans, M.E. Jensen, D.L. Martin, R.L. Elliott (Eds.).
196. McFeters G.A., Stuart D.G. Survival of coliform bacteria in natural waters: Field and laboratory studies with membrane-filter chambers. Appl. Microbiol. 1972, 24:805-811.
197. McFeters G.A., Bissonnette G.K., Jezeski J.J., Thomson C.A., Stuart D.G. Comparative survival of indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens in well water. Appl. Microbiol. 1974, 27:823-829.
198. McLain J.E.T., Williams C.F. Seasonal variation in accurate identification of Escherichia coli within a constructed wetland receiving tertiary-treated municipal effluent. Water Res. 2008, 42:4041-4048.
199. Meays C.L., Broersma K., Nordin R., Mazumder A., Samadpour M. Diurnal variability in concentrations and sources of Escherichia coli in three streams. Can. J. Microbiol. 2006, 52:1130-1135.
200. Medema G.J., Bahar M., Schets F.M. Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli, Faecal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens in river water: Influence of temperature and autochthonous microorganisms. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 35:249-252.
201. Melloul A.A., Hassani L., Rajouk L. Salmonella contamination of vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 17:207-209.
202. Metcalf and Eddy Water Reuse. 2007, McGraw Hill.
203. Mezrioui N., Baleux B., Troussellier M. A microcosm study of the survival of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium in brackish water. Water Res. 1995, 29:459-465.
204. Miles J.M., Sumner S.S., Boyer R.R., Williams R.C., Latimer J.G., Mckinney J.M. Internalization of Salmonella enterica serovar Montevideo into greenhouse tomato plants through contaminated irrigation water or seed stock. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72(4):849-852.
205. Miller J., Chanasyk D., Curtis T., Entza T., Willms W. Influence of streambank fencing with a cattle crossing on riparian health and water quality of the Lower Little Bow River in Southern Alberta, Canada. Agr. Water Manag. 2010, 97:247-258.
206. Millner P.D. Bioaerosols associated with animal production operations. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100:5379-5385.
207. Mitchell R.F., Hanks L.M. Insect frass as a pathway for transmission of bacterial wilt of cucurbits. Environ. Entomol. 2009, 38:395-403.
208. Mitra R., Cuesta-Alonso E., Wayadande A., Talley J., Gilliland T., Fletcher D.J. Effect of route of introduction and host cultivar on the colonization, internalization, and movement of the human pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 in spinach. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:1521-1530.
209. Miura T., Masago Y., Chan Y.-M., Imai T., Omura T. Detection of bacteria and enteric viruses from river and estuarine sediment. J. Water Environ. Technol. 2009, 7:307-316.
210. Mohammed H.O., Wade S.R. The risk of Zoonotic genotypes of Cryptosporidium spp. in watersheds. Giardia and Cryptosporidium: From Molecules to Disease 2009, 123-131. CAB International. G. Ortega-Pierres, S. Caccio, R. Fayer, T.G. Mank, H.V. Smith, R.C.A. Thompson (Eds.).
211. Mootian G., Wu W.-H., Matthews K.R. Transfer of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from soil, water, and manure contaminated with low numbers of the pathogen to lettuce plants. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:2308-2312.
212. Morris C.E., Monier J.-M. The ecological significance of biofilm formation by plant-associated bacteria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 2003, 41:429-453.
213. Mota A., Mena K.D., Soto-Beltran M.A., Tarwater P.M., Cháidez C. Risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water irrigating fresh produce in Mexico. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:2184-2188.
214. Moulton-Hancock C., Rose J.B., Vasconcelos G.J., Harris S.I., Klonicki P.T., Sturbaum G.D. Giardia and Cryptosporidium occurrence in groundwater. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2000, 92:117-123.
215. Moyne A.L., Sudarshana M.R., Blessington T., Koike S.T., Cahn M.D., Harris L.J. Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in field-inoculated lettuce. Food Microbiol. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2011.02.001.
216. Mukherjee A., Speh D., Dyck E., Diez-Gonzalez F. Preharvest evaluation of coliforms, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in organic and conventional produce grown by Minnesota farmers. J. Food Prot. 2004, 67:894-900.
217. Murphy M., Jamieson R., Gordon R., Stratton G.W., Madani A. Inactivation of Escherichia coli during storage of irrigation water in agricultural reservoirs. Canadian Water Resour. J. 2010, 35:69-78.
218. National Research Council (NRC) Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Irrigation 1996, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
219. Newman S.E. Disinfecting irrigation water for disease management 2004, Society of America, Florists, San Jose, CA.
220. Nguyen V.T., Turner M.S., Dykes G.A. Effect of temperature and contact time on Campylobacter jejuni attachment to, and probability of detachment from stainless steel. J. Food Prot. 2010, 73:832-838.
221. Niewolak S. Sanitary and bacterial analysis of water and bottom sediments of a heavily polluted hypertrophic lake. Ekologia Polska 1989, 37:3-15.
222. Norman N.N., Kabler P.W. Bacteriological study of irrigated vegetables. Sewage Ind. Wastes 1953, 25:605-609.
223. O'Connor G.A., Elliott H.A., Bastian R.K. Degraded water reuse: An overview. J. Environ. Qual. 2008, 37:S157-S168.
224. Obasohan E.E., Agbonlahor D.E., Obano E.E. Water pollution: A review of microbial quality and health concerns of water, sediment and fish in the aquatic ecosystem. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010, 9:423-427.
225. Obiri-Danso K., Jones K. Intertidal sediments as reservoirs for hippurate negative campylobacters, salmonellae and faecal indicators in three EU recognized bathing waters in North West England. Water Res. 1999, 34:519-527.
226. Okafo C.N., Umoh V.J., Galadima M. Occurrence of pathogens on vegetables harvested from soils irrigated with contaminated streams. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 311:49-56.
227. O'Toole G., Kaplan H.B., Kolter R. Biofilm formation as microbial development. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 2000, 54:49-79.
228. Pachepsky Y., Shelton D. Escherichia coli and fecal coliforms in freshwater and estuarine sediments. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 41:1067-1110.
229. Pachepsky Ya.A., Sadeghi A.M., Bradford S.A., Shelton D.R., Guber A.K., Dao T.H. Transport and fate of manure-borne pathogens: Modeling perspective. Agr. Water Manag. 2006, 86:81-92.
230. Pachepsky L.B., Sadeghi A.M., Shelton D.R., Pachepsky Y.A. Database on pathogen and indicator organism survival in soils and other environmental media. Paper 51997 2009, Available at:. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2009am/webprogram/Paper51997.html.
231. Parajuli P.B., Mankin K.R., Barnes P.L. Source specific fecal bacteria modeling using soil and water assessment tool model. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100:953-963.
232. Patel J.R., Darlington K.H. Survival of Salmonella on spinach leaves treated with contaminated irrigation water 2010, 3-29.
233. Patel J.R., Millner P.D., Nou X.W., Sharma M. Persistence of Enterohemorrhagic and non-pathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 on spinach leaves and in rhizosphere soil. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 108:1789-1796.
234. Patel J.R., Sharma M., Millner P.D., Singh M. Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 attached to spinach harvester blade using bacteriophage. Foodborne Path. Dis. 2011, 8:541-546.
235. Patel J.R., Sharma M., Ravishankar S. Effect of curli expression and hydrophobicity of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on attachment to fresh produce surfaces. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2011, 110:737-745.
236. Paulos T., Yilma S., Ketema T. Evaluation of the sand-trap structures of the Wonji-Shoa sugar estate irrigation scheme, Ethiopia. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 2006, 20:193-204.
237. Payment P., Locas A. Pathogens in water: Value and limits of correlation with microbial indicators. Ground Water 2010, 49(1):4-11.
238. Perez-Fuentetaja A., Clapsadl M.D., Einhouse D., Bowser P.R., Getchell R.G., Lee W.T. Influence of limnological conditions on Clostridium botulinum type E presence in Eastern Lake Erie sediments (Great Lake, USA). Hydrobiologia 2006, 563:189-200.
239. Petterson S.A., Ashbolt N.J. WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture: Microbial Risk Assessment Section. Resource document http://www.who.int/entity/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/mrareview.pdf.
240. Petterson S.R., Ashbolt N., Sharma A. Microbial risks from wastewater irrigation of salad crops: A screening-level risk assessment. Water Environ. Res. 2001, 72:667-672.
241. Pettibone G.W., Irvine K.N., Monahan K.M. Impact of a ship passage on bacteria levels and suspended sediment characteristics in the Buffalo River, New York. Water Res. 1996, 30(10):2517-2521.
242. Phillip D.A.T., Antoine P., Cooper V., Francis L., Mangal E., Seepersad N., Ragoo R., Singh S., Ramsubhag A. Impact of recreation on recreational water quality of a small tropical stream. J. Environ. Monit. 2009, 11:1192-1198.
243. Ravina I., Paz E., Sofer Z., Marcu A., Shisha A., Sagi G. Control of emitter clogging in drip irrigation with reclaimed wastewater. Irrig. Sci. 1992, 13:129-139.
244. Rehmann C.R., Soupir M.L. Importance of interactions between the water column and the sediment for microbial concentrations in streams. Water Res. 2009, 43:4579-4589.
245. Reynolds K.A., Mena K.D., Gerba C.P. Risk of Waterborne Illness Via Drinking Water in the United States. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2008, 192:117-158.
246. Rhodes M.W., Kator H. Survival of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. in estuarine environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54:2902-2907.
247. Richardson C.W., Bucks D.A., Sadler E.J. The conservation effects assessment project benchmark watersheds: Synthesis of preliminary findings. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2008, 63:590-604.
248. Rock C.M., McLain J.E.T., Walworth J. Seasonal reclaimed water quality assessment of nutrient, chemical, and biological variability 2009, Seattle, WA, (Paper 8-C2).
249. Rodgers P., Soulsby C., Hunter C., Petry J. Spatial and temporal bacterial quality of a lowland agricultural stream in northeast Scotland. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 314-316:289-302.
250. Rogers D.J., Randolph S.E., Snow R.W., Hay S.I. Satellite imagery in the study and forecast of malaria. Nature 2002, 415:710-715.
251. Rose J.B., Huffman D.E., Riley K., Farrah S.R., Lukasik J.O., Hamann C.L. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the upper occoquan sewage authority water reclamation plant. Water Environ. Res. 2001, 73:711-720.
252. Rubulis J., Verberk J., Vreeburg J., Gruškevica K., Juhna T. Chemical and microbial composition of loose deposits in drinking water distribution systems 2008, 695-702. (Vilnius).
253. Ryu H., Alum A., Abbaszadegan M. Microbial characterization and population changes in nonpotable reclaimed water distribution systems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39:8600-8605.
254. Rzezutka A., Nichols R.A.B., Connelly L., Kaupke A., Kozyra I., Cook N., Birrell S., Smith H.V. Cryptosporidium oocysts on fresh produce from areas of high livestock production in Poland. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2010, 139:96-101.
255. Sanders S.Q., Frank J.F., Arnold J.W. Temperature and Nutrient Effects on Campylobacter jejuni Attachment on Multispecies Biofilms on Stainless Steel. J. Food Prot. 2008, 71:271-278.
256. Sapers G., Solomon E., Matthews K.R. The Produce Contamination Problem: Causes and Solutions, Food Science and Technology 2009, Academic Press.
257. Savage W.G. Bacteriological examination of tidal mud as an index of pollution of the river. J. Hyg. Cambridge 1905, 5:146-174.
258. Scharff R. Health-related costs from foodborne illness in the United States http://www.producesafetyproject.org/media?id=0009.
259. Schets F.M., Duringa M., Italiaander R., Heijnen L., Rutjes S.A., van der Zwaluw W.K., de Roda Husman A.M. Escherichia coli O157:H7 in drinking water from private water supplies in the Netherlands. Water Res. 2005, 39:4485-4493.
260. Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities 2004, CABI/IWMI/IDRC, Available at:. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-31595-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html, C.A. Scott, N.I. Faruqui, L. Raschid-Sally (Eds.).
261. Searcy K.E., Packman A.I., Atwill E.R., Harter T. Deposition of Cryptosporidium oocysts in streambeds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72:1810-1816.
262. Searcy K.E., Packman A.I., Atwill E.R., Harter T. Capture and retention of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72:6242-6247.
263. September S.M., Els F.A., Venter S.N., Brözel V.S. Prevalence of bacterial pathogens in biofilms of drinking water distribution systems. J. Water Health 2007, 5:219-227.
264. Sharma M., Ingram D.T., Patel J.R., Millner P.D., Wan X., Hull A.E., Donnenberg M.S. A novel approach to investigate the uptake and internalization of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in spinach cultivated in soil and hydroponic medium. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:1513-1520.
265. Shelton D.R., Karns J.S., Coppock C., Patel J., Sharma M., Pachepsky Y.A. Relationship between eae and stx virulence genes and E. coli in an agricultural watershed: Implications for irrigation water standards and leafy green commodities. J. Food Protect. 2011, 74. (in press).
266. Shortt R., Boelee E., Matsuno Y., Faubert G., Madramootoo C., Van Der Hoek W. Evaluation of thermotolerant coliforms and salinity in the four available water sources of an irrigated region of southern Sri Lanka. Irrig. Drain. 2003, 52:133-146.
267. Shuval H.I., Adin A., Fattal B., Rawitz E., Yekutiel P. Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries: Health Effects and Technical Solutions 1986, (World Bank Technical Paper No. 51, Washington, DC).
268. Shuval H., Lampert Y., Fattal B. Development of a risk assessment approach for evaluating wastewater reuse standards for agriculture. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35(11-12):15-20.
269. Silhan J., Corfitzen C.B., Albrechtsen H.J. Effect of temperature and pipe material on biofilm formation and survival of Escherichia coli in used drinking water pipes: A laboratory-based study. Water Sci. Technol. 2006, 54:49-56.
270. Singh G., Vajpayee P., Ram S., Shanker A. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in South Asian Gangetic Riverine System. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44(16):6475-6480.
271. Sjogren R.E., Gibson M.J. Bacterial survival in a dilute environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1981, 41:1331-1336.
272. Skraber S., Schijven J., Gantzer C., de Roda Husman A.M. Pathogenic viruses in drinking-water biofilms: A public health risk?. Biofilms 2005, 2:105-117.
273. Söderström A., Österberg P., Lindqvist A., Jönsson B., Lindberg A., Blide Ulander S., Welinder-Olsson C., Löfdahl S., Kaijser B., De Jong B., Kuhlmann-Berenzon S., Boqvist S., et al. A large Escherichia coli O157 outbreak in Sweden associated with locally produced lettuce. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 2008, 5:339-348.
274. Solo-Gabriele H.M., Wolfert M.A., Desmarais T.R., Palmer C.J. Sources of Escherichia coli in a coastal subtropical environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2000, 66:230-237.
275. Solomon E.B., Potenski C.J., Matthews K.R. Effect of irrigation method on transmission to and persistence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on lettuce. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65:673-676.
276. Solomon E.B., Yaron S., Matthews K.R. Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from contaminated manure and irrigation water to lettuce plant tissue and its subsequent internalization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68:397-400.
277. Song I., Stine S.W., Choi C.Y., Gerba C.P. Comparison of crop contamination by microorganisms during subsurface drip and furrow irrigation. J. Environ. Eng. 2006, 132:1243-1248.
278. Steele M., Odumeru J. Irrigation water as source of foodborne pathogens on fruits and vegetables. J. Food Prot. 2004, 67(12):2839-2849.
279. Stine S.W., Song I., Choi C.Y., Gerba C.P. Application of microbial risk assessment to the development of standards for enteric pathogens in water used to irrigate fresh produce. J. Food Prot. 2005, 68:913-918.
280. Stoeckel D.M. Fecal contamination of irrigation water: Keep it off the dinner table 2009, 100-102.
281. Strang J. Water, Contaminants and Flooding 2010, (Available at:). http://www.kyagr.com/marketing/farmmarket/documents/watercontaminantsandflooding.ppt.
282. Suslow T.V. Standards for irrigation and foliar contact water 2010, (Produce safety project issue brief). Available at:. http://www.producesafetyproject.org/admin/assets/files/Water-Suslow-1.pdf.
283. Talley J.L., Wayadande A.C., Wasala L.P., Gerry A.C., Fletcher J., DeSilva U., Gilliland S.E. Association of Escherichia coli O157:H7 with filth flies (Muscidae and Calliphoridae) captured in leafy greens fields and experimental transmission of E. coli O157:H7 to spinach leaves by house flies (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Food Prot. 2009, 72:1547-1552.
284. Tanaka H., Asano T., Schroeder E.D., Tchobanoglous G. Estimating the safety of wastewater reclamation and reuse using enteric virus monitoring data. Wat. Environ. Res. 1998, 70:39-51.
285. Tate R.L. Cultural and environmental factors affecting the longevity of Escherichia coli in Histosols. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1978, 35:925-929.
286. Tate K.W. Rangeland streams-Water quality conditions http://rangelandwatersheds.ucdavis.edu/main/rangeland_streams.htm.
287. Taylor H.D., Bastos R.K., Pearson H.W., Mara D.D. Drip irrigation with waste stabilization pond effluents: Solving the problem of emitter fouling. Water Res. 1995, 29(4):1069-1078.
288. Teplitski M., Barak J.D., Schneider K.R. Human enteric pathogens in produce: Un-answered ecological questions with direct implications for food safety. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2009, 20:166-171.
289. Thomas V., McDonnell G., Denyer S.P., Maillard J.Y. Free-living amoebae and their intracellular pathogenic microorganisms: Risks for water quality. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2009, 1-29.
290. Thurston-Enriquez J.A., Watt P., Dowd S.E., Enriquez R., Pepper I.L., Gerba C.P. Detection of protozoan parasites and microsporidia in irrigation waters used for crop production. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65:378-382.
291. Traister E., Anisfeld S.C. Variability of indicator bacteria at different time scales in the upper Hoosic river watershed. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40:4990-4995.
292. Tyrrel S.F. The microbiological quality of water used for irrigation. Irrigat. News 1999, 27:39-42.
293. Tyrrel S.F., Knox J.W., Weatherhead E.K. Microbiological water quality requirements for salad irrigation In the United Kingdom. J. Food Prot. 2006, 69:2029-2035.
294. U.S.EPA Health Risks from Microbial Growth and Biofilms in Drinking Water Distribution Systems http://www.epa.gov/safewater/disinfection/tcr/regulation_revisions.html.
295. U.S.EPA Technology Fact Sheets. Disinfection Available at:. http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/mtbfact.cfm.
296. U.S.EPA Water Quality Criteria 1973, USEPA, Washington, DC, (National Academy of Sciences Report to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 350-366).
297. U.S.EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse Washington, DC. Available at:. http://www.epa.gov/NRMRL/pubs/625r04108/625r04108.pdf.
298. U.S.FDA FDA Issues Draft Guidances for Tomatoes, Leafy Greens and Melons Available at:. http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/FruitsVegetablesJuices/FDAProduceSafetyActivities/ucm174086.htm.
299. U.S.FDA and California Food Emergency Response Team Investigation of the Taco John's Escherichia coli O157:H7 Outbreak Associated with Iceberg Lettuce 2008, Department of Health, Sacramento, CA, (41 p).
300. USDA-AMS-MDP U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. Microbial Data Program. Data summaries. 2002-2008 (Online). http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/mpo/Mdp.htm.
301. USDA-NASS Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey 2008, (Available at:). http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/Farm_and_Ranch_Irrigation_Survey/index.asp.
302. Van der Hoek W., Konradsen F., Ensink J., Mudasser M., Jensen P. Irrigation water as a source of drinking water: Is safe use possible?. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2001, 6:46-54.
303. Van Donsel D.J., Geldreich E.E. Relationships of salmonellae to fecal coliforms in bottom sediments. Water Res. 1971, 5:1079-1087.
304. Van Elsas J.D., Semenov A.V., Costa R., Trevors J.T. Survival of Escherichia coli in the environment: Fundamental and public health aspects. ISME J. 2010, 2010:1-11.
305. Vereen E., Lowrance R.R., Cole D.J., Lipp E.K. Distribution and Ecology of Campylobacter in Coastal Plain Streams (Georgia, United States of America). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007, 73:1395-1403.
306. Vermont Water Agency Water Quality Criteria for Agricultural Water Sources and Microbial Testing Guidelines. 2009, (Available at:). http://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/GAPS/VT%20Water%20Quality%20Criteria.pdf.
307. Völker S., Schreiber C., Kistemann T. Drinking water quality in household supply infrastructure-A survey of the current situation in Germany. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2010, 213:204-209.
308. Wachtel M.R., Whitehand L.C., Mandrell R.E. Prevalence of Escherichia coli associated with a cabbage crop inadvertently irrigated with partially treated sewage wastewater. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65:471-475.
309. Walters S.P., Thebo A.L., Boehm A.B. Impact of urbanization and agriculture on the occurrence of bacterial pathogens and stx genes in coastal water bodies of central California. Water Res. 2011, 45:1752-1762.
310. Warriner K., Huber A., Namvar A., Fan W., Dunfield K. Recent advances in the microbial safety of fresh fruits and vegetables. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Vol. 57, 2009, 155-208. Academic Press.
311. Warrington P.D. Water Quality Criteria for Microbiological Indicators: Overview Report. British Columbia, Ministry of Water, Land, and Air Protection, Resource Quality Section 1988, Water Management Branch, Ministry of Environment and Parks, (March 8. Available at:). http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/BCguidelines/microbiology/microbiology.html.
312. WateReuse Foundation National database of water reuse facilities summary report http://www.watereuse.org/info/nwrdb.
313. Webb C.C., Erickson M.C., Diaz-Perez J.C., Phatak S., Silvoy J.J., McGhin L.E., Payton A.S., Liao J., Doyle M.P. Surface and internalized Escherichia coli O157:H7 on field grown spinach treated with spray contaminated irrigation water 2008, (Available at:). http://www.ugacfs.org/research/pdfs/Ecology2008.pdf.
314. Westcot D.W. Quality control of wastewater for irrigated crop production 1997, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, (Water report 10. Available at:). http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5367E/W5367E00.htm.
315. Whitman R.L., Nevers M.B., Korinek G.C., Byappanahalli M.N. Solar and temporal effects on Escherichia coli concentration at a Lake Michigan swimming beach. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 70:4276-4285.
316. Whittington R.J., Marsh I.B., Reddacliff L.A. Survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in dam water and sediment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:5304-5308.
317. Wilkes G., Edge T., Gannon V., Jokinen C., Lyautey E., Medeiros D., Neumann N., Ruecker N., Topp E., Lapen D.R. Seasonal relationships among indicator bacteria, pathogenic bacteria, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, and hydrological indices for surface waters within an agricultural landscape. Water Res. 2009, 43:2209-2223.
318. Wilkinson J., Kay D., Wyer M., Jenkins A. Processes driving the episodic flux of faecal indicator organisms in streams impacting on recreational and shellfish harvesting waters. Water Res. 2006, 40:153-161.
319. Williamson D.A. Manitoba water quality objectives, standards, and guidelines 2002, Manitoba Conservation, Water Quality Management Section, Available at:. http://www.gov.mb.ca/waterstewardship/water_quality/quality/mwqsog_2002.pdf.
320. Wolyniak E.A., Hargreaves B.R., Jellison K.L. Seasonal retention and release of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts by environmental biofilms in the laboratory. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2010, 76:1021-1027.
321. Wright R.C. The survival patterns of selected faecal bacteria in tropical fresh waters. Epidemiol. Infect. 1989, 103:603-611.
322. Zhang G., Ma L., Beuchat L.R., Erickson M.C., Phelan V.H., Doyle M.P. Lack of internalization of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) after leaf surface and soil inoculation. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72(10):2028-2037.
323. Zhao Q.L., Zhang J.N., You S.J., Wang S.H., Wang L.N. Effect of irrigation with reclaimed water on crops and health risk assessment. Water Sci. Technol. 2006, 6(6):99-109.