Functional anatomy of the upper airway in humans

Toxicology of the Nose and Upper Airways

Volumn , Issue , 2016, Pages 18-44

  Baroody, Fuad M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 80051779226     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (89)

1. Drumheller GW. Topology of the lateral nasal cartilages: the anatomical relationship of the lateral nasal to the greater alar cartilage, lateral crus. Anat Rec 1973; 176:321-327.
2. Van Loosen J, Van Zanten GA, Howard CV, et al. Growth characteristics of the human nasal septum. Rhinology 1996; 34:78.
3. Gray L. Deviated nasal septum. III. Its influence on the physiology and disease of the nose and ears. J Laryngol 1967; 81:953.
4. Mygind N, Pedersen M, Nielsen M. Morphology of the upper airway epithelium. In: Proctor DF, Andersen IB, eds. The Nose. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Biomedical Press BV, 1982:71-97.
5. Cummings CW, Fredrickson JM, Harker LA, et al. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 2nd ed. St. Louis, mO: Mosby-Year Book, 1993.
6. Montgomery WW. Surgery of the Upper Respiratory System. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1979.
7. Maniscalco M, Sofia M, Pelaia G. Nitric oxide in upper airways inflammatory diseases. Inflamm Res 2007; 56:58-69.
8. Lindberg S, Cervin A, Runer T. Low levels of nasal nitric oxide (NO) correlates to impaired mucociliary function in the upper airways. Acta Otolaryngol 1997; 117:728-734.
9. Proctor DF. The mucociliary system. In: Proctor DF, Andersen IB, eds. The Nose: Upper Airway Physiology and the Atmospheric Environment. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Biomedical Press BV, 1982:245-278.
10. Evans MJ, Plopper GG. The role of basal cells in adhesion of columnar epithelium to airway basement membrane. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:481.
11. Evans MJ, Shami S, Cabral-Anderson LJ, et al. Role of nonciliated cells in renewal of the bronchial epithelium of rats exposed to NO2. Am J Pathol 1986; 123:126.
12. Tos M. Goblet cells and glands in the nose and paranasal sinuses. In: Proctor DF, Andersen IB, eds. The Nose. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Biomedical Press BV, 1982:98-144.
13. Winther B, Innes DJ, Mills SE, et al. Lymphocyte subsets in normal airway mucosa of the human nose. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1987; 113:59.
14. Bradding P, Feather IH, Wilson S, et al. Immunolocalization of cytokines in the nasal mucosa of normal and perennial rhinitic subjects. J Immunol 1993; 151:3853.
15. Lim MC, Taylor RM, Naclerio RM. The histology of allergic rhinitis and its comparison to cellular changes in nasal lavage. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151: 136.
16. Varney VA, Jacobson MR, Sudderick RM, et al. Immunohistology of the nasal mucosa following allergen-induced rhinitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:170.
17. Bojsen-Moller F. Glandulae nasales anteriores in the human nose. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1965; 74:363.
18. Frank MM, Fries LF. The role of complement in inflammation and phagocytosis. Immunol Today 1991; 12:322.
19. Yang D, Chertov O, Bykovskaia SN, et al. Beta-defensins: linking innate and adaptive immunity through dendritic and T cell CCR6. Science 1999; 286:525.
20. Modlin RL. Mammalian Toll-like receptors. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2002; 88:543.
21. Akashi S, Shimazu R, Ogata H, et al. Cutting edge: cell surface expression and lipopolysaccharide signaling via the toll-like receptor 4-MD-2 complex on mouse peritoneal macrophages. J Immunol 2000; 164:3471.
22. Muzio M, Bosisio D, Polentarutti N, et al. Differential expression and regulation of toll-like receptors (TLR) in human leukocytes: selective expression of TLR3 in dendritic cells. J Immunol 2000; 164:5998.
23. Poltorak A, He X, Smirnova I, et al. Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene. Science 1998; 282:2085.
24. Takeuchi O, Hoshino K, Kawai T, et al. Differential roles of TLR2 and TLR4 in recognition of gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial cell wall components. Immunity 1999; 11:443.
25. Brightbill HD, Libraty DH, Krutzik SR, et al. Host defense mechanisms triggered by microbial lipoproteins through toll-like receptors. Science 1999; 285:732.
26. Bauer S, Kirschning CJ, Hacker H, et al. Human TLR9 confers responsiveness to bacterial DNA via species-specific CpG motif recognition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98:9237.
27. Hayashi F, Smith K, Ozinsky A, et al. The innate immune response to bacterial flag-ellin is mediated by Toll-like receptor 5. Nature 2001; 410:1099.
28. Alexopoulou L, Holt AC, Medzhitov R, et al. Recognition of double stranded RNA and activation of NF-kB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 2001; 413:732.
29. Chinen J, Shearer WT. Advances in basic and clinical immunology in 2006. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120:263-270.
30. Abreu MT, Arditi M. Innate immunity and toll-like receptors: clinical implications of basic science research. J Pediatr 2004; 144:421-429.
31. Hoffmann JA, Kafatos F, Janeway C, et al. Phylogenetic perspectives in innate immunity. Science 1999; 284:1313.
32. Becker MN, Diamond G, Verhese MW, et al. CD14-dependent lipopolysaccharide-induced ß-defensin-2 expression in human tracheobronchial epithelium. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:29731.
33. Aliprantis AO, Yang RB, Mark M, et al. Cell activation and apoptosis by bacterial lipoproteins through Toll-like receptor-2. Science 1999; 285:736.
34. Ellison RT, Giehl TJ. Killing of gram-negative bacteria by lactoferrin and lysozyme. J Clin Invest 1991; 88:1080-1091.
35. Akinbi HT, Epaud R, Bhatt H, et al. Bacterial killing is enhanced by expression of lysozyme in the lungs of transgenic mice. J Immunol 2000; 165:5760-5766.
36. Zhu J, Nathan C, Ding A. Suppression of macrophage responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide by a non-secretory form of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Biochim Biophys Acta 1999; 1451:219-223.
37. Sorensen O, Arnljots K, Cowland JB, et al. The human antibacterial cathelicidin, hCAP-18, is synthesized in myelocytes and metamyelocytes and localized to specific granules in neutrophils. Blood 1997; 90:2796-2803.
38. Ooi EH, Wormald PJ, Tan LW. Innate immunity in the paranasal sinuses: a review of nasal host defenses. Am J Rhinol 2008; 22:13-19.
39. Niyonsaba F, Iwabuchi K, Someya A, et al. A cathelicidin family of human antibacterial peptide LL-37 induces mast cell chemotaxis. Immunology 2002; 106:20.
40. De Y, Chen Q, Scmidt AP, et al. LL-37, the neutrophil granule- and epithelial cell-derived cathelicidin, utilizes formyl peptide recptor-like 1 (FPRL1) as a receptor to chemoattract human peripheral blood neutrophils, monocytes, and T cells. J Exp Med 2000; 192:1069-1074.
41. Niyonsaba F, Hirata M, Ogawa H, et al. Epithelial cell derived antibacterial peptides human beta-defensins and cathelicidin: multifunctional activities on mast cells. Curr Drug Targets Inflamm Allergy 2003; 2:224-231.
42. Ganz T, Selsted ME, Szklarek D, et al. Defensins. Natural peptide antibiotics of human neutrophils. J Clin Invest 1985; 76:1427.
43. Lehrer RI, Daher K, Ganz T, et al. Direct inactivation of viruses by MCP-1 and MCP-2, natural peptide antibiotics from rabbit leukocytes. J Virol 1985; 54:467.
44. Harwig SS, Ganz T, Lehrer RI. Neutrophil defensins: purification, characterization, and antimicrobial testing. Methods Enzymol 1994; 236:160.
45. Jones DE, Bevins CL. Defensin-6 mRNA in human Paneth cells: implications for antimicrobial peptides in host defense of the human bowel. FEBS Lett 1993; 315:187.
46. Selsted ME, Miller SI, Henschen AH, et al. Enteric defensins: antibiotic peptide components of intestinal host defense. J Cell Biol 1992; 118:929.
47. Quayle AJ, Porter EM, Nussbaum AA, et al. Gene expression, immunolocalization, and secretion of human defensin-5 in human female reproductive tract. Am J Pathol 1998; 152:1247.
48. Frye M, Bargon J, Daultbaev N, et al. Expression of human alpha-defensin 5 (HD5) mRNA in nasal and bronchial epithelial cells. J Clin Pathol 2000; 53:770-773.
49. Chaly YV, Paleolog EM, Kolesnikova TS, et al. Neutrophil alpha-defensin human neutrophil peptide modulates cytokine production in human monocytes and adhesion molecule expression in endothelial cells. Eur Cytokine Netw 2000; 11:257.
50. Yang D, Biragyn A, Kwak LW, et al. Mammalian defensins in immunity: more than just microbicidal. Trends Immunol 2002; 23:291.
51. Niyonsaba F. Evaluation of the effects of peptide antibiotics human beta-defensins-1/-2 and LL-37 on histamine release and prostaglandin D(2) production from mast cells. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31:1066.
52. Befus AD, Mowat C, Gilchrist M, et al. Neutrophil defensins induce histamine secretion from mast cells: mechanisms of action. J Immunol 1999; 163:947.
53. Harder J, Bartels J, Christophers E, et al. Isolation and characterization of human beta-defensin-3, a novel human inducible peptide antibiotic. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:5707.
54. Garcia JR, Krause A, Schulz S, et al. Human beta-defensin 4: a novel inducible peptide with a specific salt-sensitive spectrum of antimicrobial activity. FASEB J 2001; 15:1819.
55. Zhao C, Wang I, Lehrer RI. Widespread expression of beta-defensin hBD-1 in human secretory glands and epithelial cells. FEBS Lett 1996; 396:319.
56. Bals R, Wang X, Zasloff M, et al. The peptide antibiotic LL-37/hCAP-18 is expressed in epithelia of the human lung where it has broad antimicrobial activity at the airway surface. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:9541.
57. Lee SH, Lim HH, Lee HM, et al. Expression of human beta-defensin 1 mRNA in human nasal mucosa. Acta Otolaryngol 2000; 120:58.
58. Lee SH, Kim SH, Lim HH, et al. Antimicrobial defensin peptides of the human nasal mucosa. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2002; 111:135.
59. Kim ST, Cha HE, Kim DY, et al. Antimicrobial peptide LL-37 is upregulated in chronic nasal inflammatory disease. Acta Otolaryngol 2003; 123:81-85.
60. Chen PH, Fang SY. The expresion of human antimicrobial peptide LL-37 in the human nasal mucosa. Am J Rhinol 2004; 18:381-385.
61. Ooi EH, Wormald PJ, Carney AS, et al. Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide is upregulated in the eosinophilic mucus subgroup of chronic rhinosinusitis patients. Am J Rhinol 2007; 21:395-401.
62. Cauna N. Blood and nerve supply of the nasal lining. In: Proctor DF, Andersen IB, eds. The Nose. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Biomedical Press BV, 1982:45-69.
63. Baroody FM, Wagenmann M, Naclerio RM. A comparison of the secretory response of the nasal mucosa to histamine and methacholine. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74(6):2661.
64. Baraniuk JN, Lundgren JD, Mullol J, et al. Substance P and neurokinin A in human nasal mucosa. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991; 4:228.
65. Baraniuk JN, Castellino S, Merida M, et al. Calcitonin gene related peptide in human nasal mucosa. Am J Physiol 1990; 258:L81.
66. Laitinen A, Partanen M, Hervonen A, et al. VIP-like immunoreactive nerves in human respiratory tract. Light and electron microscopic study. Histochemistry 1985; 82:313.
67. Baraniuk JN, Okayama M, Lundgren JD, et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in human nasal mucosa. J Clin Invest 1990; 86:825.
68. Wilson WR, Allansmith MR. Rapid, atraumatic method for obtaining nasal mucus samples. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1976; 85:391.
69. Andersen I, Lundqvist G, Proctor DF. Human nasal mucosal function under four controlled humidities. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 119:619.
70. Fry FA, Black A. Regional deposition and clearance of particles in the human nose. Aerosol Sci 1973; 4:113.
71. Lippmann M. Deposition and clearance of inhaled particles in the human nose. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1970; 79:519.
72. Baumgarten C, Togias AG, Naclerio RM, et al. Influx of kininogens into nasal secretions after antigen challenge of allergic individuals. J Clin Invest 1985; 76:191.
73. Hasegawa M, Kern EB. The human cycle. Mayo Clin Proc 1977; 52:28.
74. Kennedy DW, Zinreich SJ, Kumar AJ, et al. Physiologic mucosal changes within the nose and the ethmoid sinus: imaging of the nasal cycle by MRI. Laryngoscope 1988; 98:928.
75. Swift DL, Proctor DF. Access of air to the respiratory tract. In: Brain JD, Proctor DF, Reid LM, eds. Respiratory Defense Mechanisms. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, 1977.
76. Ingelstedt S, Ivstam B. Study in the humidifying capacity of the nose. Acta Otolaryngol 1951; 39:286.
77. Aharonson EF, Menkes H, Gurtner G, et al. The effect of respiratory airflow rate on the removal of soluble vapors by the nose. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37:654.
78. Scherer PW, Hahn II, Mozell MM. The biophysics of nasal airflow. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1989; 22:265.
79. Ingelstedt S, Ivstam B. The source of nasal secretion in normal condition. Acta Otolaryngol 1949; 37:446.
80. Kumlien J, Drettner B. The effect of ipratropium bromide (Atrovent) on the air conditioning capacity of the nose. Clin Otolaryngol 1985; 10:165.
81. Togias AG, Proud D, Lichtenstein LM, et al. The osmolality of nasal secretions increases when inflammatory mediators are released in response to inhalation of cold, dry air. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:625.
82. Rouadi P, Baroody Fm, Abbott D, et al. A technique to measure the ability of the human nose to warm and humidify air. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87:400-406.
83. Assanasen P, Baroody FM, Abbott DJ, et al. Natural and induced allergic responses increase the ability of the nose to warm and humidify air. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 106:1045-1052.
84. Assanasen P, Baroody FM, Naureckas E, et al. The nasal passage of subjects with asthma has a decreased ability to warm and humidify inspired air. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:1640-1646.
85. Berglund B, Lindvall T. Olfaction. In: Proctor DF, Andersen IB, eds. The Nose. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Biomedical Press BV, 1982.
86. Rous J, Kober F. Influence of one-sided nasal respiratory occlusion of the olfactory threshold values. Arch Klin Exp Ohren Nasen Kehlkopfheilkd 1970; 196(2):374.
87. Ship JA, Pearson JD, Cruise LJ, et al. Longitudinal changes in smell identification. J Gerontol 1996; 51(2):M86.
88. Jacob S, Zelano B, Gungor A, et al. Location and gross morphology of the nasopalatine duct in human adults. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000; 126:741-748.
89. Taylor R. Brave new nose: sniffing out human sexual chemistry. J NIH Res 1994; 6:47.