The search for reliable biomarkers of disease in multiple chemical sensitivity and other environmental intolerances

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 2770-2797

  de Luca, Chiara ^a   Raskovic, Desanka ^a   Pacifico, Valeria ^a   Thai, Jeffrey Chung Sheun ^b   Korkina, Liudmila ^a  

^a LABORATORIO DI PATOLOGIA VASCOLARE   (Italy)

^b Natural Health Farm   (Malaysia)

Author keywords

Amalgam toxicity; Chronic fatigue; Detoxification; Disease biomarkers; Electric hypersensitivity; Environmental intolerances; Environmental medicine; Fibromyalgia; Multiple chemical sensitivity; Oxidative damage

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANALGESIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; ARYLDIALKYLPHOSPHATASE 1; ARYLDIALKYLPHOSPHATASE 2; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CATALASE; CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; CHOLECYSTOKININ B RECEPTOR; CYTOCHROME P450 2C19; CYTOCHROME P450 2C9; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 3A5; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE M1; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE P1; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 8; METHYLENETETRAHYDROFOLATE REDUCTASE (NADPH2); MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; THIOBARBITURIC ACID REACTIVE SUBSTANCE; VASCULOTROPIN; VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND;

CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DETOXIFICATION; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE COURSE; DNA POLYMORPHISM; ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENZYME ACTIVITY; EPIGENETICS; FIBROMYALGIA; HOLISTIC CARE; HUMAN; IRRITABLE COLON; MERCURIALISM; MULTIPLE CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY; NEUROIMAGING; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; PERSIAN GULF SYNDROME; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOTHERAPY; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SICK BUILDING SYNDROME; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; TOOTH DISEASE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 79960826649     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8072770     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Genuis, S.J. Sensitivity-related illness: the escalating pandemic of allergy, food intolerance and chemical sensitivity. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 6047-6061.
2. De Luca, C.; Scordo, G.; Cesareo, E.; Raskovic, D.; Genovesi, G.; Korkina, L. Idiopathic environment-associated diseases: from molecular epidemiology to molecular medicine. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2010, 48, 625-635.
3. Bornschein, S.; Förstl, H.; Zilker, T. Idiopathic environmental intolerances (formerly multiple chemical sensitivity) psychiatric perspectives. J. Intern. Med. 2001, 250, 309-321.
4. Staudenmayer, H. Idiopathic environmental intolerances (IEI): myth and reality. Toxicol. Lett. 2001, 120, 333-342.
5. International Programme on Chemical Safety/World Health Organization (IPCS/WHO). Conclusion and recommendations of a wokshop on multiple chemical sensitivities (MCS). Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 1996, 24, S79-S86.
6. Mayou, R. Somatization. Psycother. Psychom. 1993, 59, 69-83.
7. Rademaker, M. Do Women Have More Adverse Drug Reactions? Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2001, 2, 349-351.
8. Cullen, M.R. The worker with multiple chemical sensitivities: an overview. Occup. Med. 1987, 2, 655-661.
9. Miller, C.S.; Prihoda, T.J. A controlled comparison of symptoms and chemical intolerances reported by Gulf War veterans, implant recipients and persons with multiple chemical sensitivity. Toxicol. Ind. Health 1999, 15, 386-397.
10. Gralewicz, S. Multiple chemical sensitivity: A new type of toxicity? Med. Pr. 1998, 49, 473-481.
11. Nogué Xarau, S.; Alarcón Romay, M.; Martínez Martínez, J.M.; Delclós Clanchet, J.; Rovira Prat, E.; Fernández Solà, J. Multiple chemical sensitivity: Epidemiological, clinical and prognostic differences between occupational and non-occupational cases. Med. Clin. (Barc). 2010, 135, 52-58.
12. Park, J.; Knudson, S. Medically unexplained physical symptoms. Health Rep. 2007, 18, 43-47.
13. Fukuyama, T.; Ueda, H.; Hayashi, K.; Tajima, Y.; Shuto, Y.; Saito, T.R.; Harada, T.; Kosaka, T. Detection of low-level environmental chemical allergy by a long-term sensitization method. Toxicol. Lett. 2008, 180, 1-8.
14. Shannon, M; Woolf, A.; Goldman, R. Children's environmental health: one year in a pediatric environmental health specialty unit. Ambul. Pediatr. 2003, 3, 53-56.
15. Jedrychowski, W.; Galas, A.; Whyatt, R.; Perera, F. The prenatal use of antibiotics and the development of allergic disease in one year old infants. A preliminary study. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 2006, 19, 70-76.
16. Spencer, T.R.; Schur, P.M. The challenge of multiple chemical sensitivity. J. Environ. Health 2008, 70, 24-27.
17. De Luca, C.; Scordo, M.G.; Cesareo, E.; Pastore, S.; Mariani, S.; Maiani, G.; Stancato, A.; Loreti, B.; Valacchi, G.; Lubrano, C.; Raskovic, D.; De Padova, L.; Genovesi, G.; Korkina, L. Biological Definition of Multiple Chemical Sensitivity from Redox State and Cytokine Profiling and not from Polymorphisms of Xenobiotic-Metabolizing Enzymes. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2010, 248, 285-292.
18. Korkina, L.; Scordo, G.; Deeva, I.; Cesareo, E.; de Luca, C. The chemical defensive system in the pathobiology of idiopathic environment-associated diseases. Curr. Drug Metab. 2009, 10, 914-931.
19. Mattson, M.P.; Calabrese, E.J. Hormesis: A Revolution in Biology, Toxicology and Medicine; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2009; p. 213.
20. Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, Office of Chemical Safety and Environmental Health. Scientific Review Report: Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Identifying Key Research Needs; OCSEH: Canberra, Australia, 2010; p. 101.
21. Lipson, J.G.; Doiron, N. Environmental issues and work: women with multiple chemical sensitivities. Health Care Women Int. 2006, 27, 571-584.
22. Wiesmüller, G.A.; Ebel, H.; Hornberg, C.; Kwan, O.; Friel, J. Are syndromes in environmental medicine variants of somatoform disorders? Med. Hypotheses 2003, 61, 419-430.
23. Kipen, H.M.; Fiedler, N. Environmental Factors in Medically Unexplained Symptoms and Related Syndromes: The Evidence and the Challenge. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110, 597-599.
24. Aaron, L.A.; Buchwald, D. A review of the evidence for overlap among unexplained clinical conditions. Ann. Intern. Med. 2001, 1, 868-881.
25. Kanaan, R.A.; Lepine, J.P.; Wessely, S.C. The association or otherwise of the functional somatic syndromes. Psychosom. Med. 2007, 69, 855-859.
26. Karlson, E.W.; Watts, J.; Singorovitch, J.; Bonetti, M.; Wright, E.; Cooper, G.S.; McAlindon, T.E.; Costenbader, K.H.; Massarotti, E.M.; Fitzgerald, L.M.; Jajoo, R.; Husni, M.E.; Fossel, A.H.; Pankey, H.; Ding, W.Z.; Knorr, R.; Condon, S.; Fraser, P.A. Effect of glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms and proximity to hazardous waste sites on time to systemic lupus erythematosus diagnosis: results from the Roxbury lupus project. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 56, 244-254.
27. Yun, B.R.; El-Sohemy, A.; Cornelis, M.C.; Bae, S.C. Glutathione S-transferase M1, T1, and P1 genotypes and rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 2005, 32, 992-997.
28. Bolt, H.M.; Kiesswetter, E. Is multiple chemical sensitivity a clinically defined entity? Toxicol. Lett. 2002, 128, 99-106.
29. Moen, B.E. Chemical sensitivity and the work place environment: research needs. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005, 30, 1039-1042.
30. Sears, M.E. The Medical Perspective on Environmentasl Sensitivities; Canadian Human Rights Commission: Ottawa, Canada, 2007.
31. Waickman, F.J.; Vojdani, A. Putting chemical and environmental sensitivities in perspective. Otolaryngol. Clin. North Am. 1998, 31, 55-67.
32. American Lung Association, Environmental Protection Agency, Consumer Product Safety Commission and Americal Medical Association. Indoor Air Pollution: an Introductioni for Health Professionals; EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
33. Lacour, M.; Zunder, T.; Schmidtke, K.; Vaith, P.; Scheidt, C. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Syndrome (MCS)-suggestions for an extension of the US MCS-case definition. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2005, 208, 141-151.
34. Kreutzer, R.; Neutra, R.R.; Lashuay, N. Prevalence of people reporting sensitivities to chemicals in a population-based survey. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1999, 150, 1-12.
35. Ashford, N.A.; Miller, C.S. Chemical Exposures: Low Levels and High Stakes; 2nd ed.; Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, NY, USA, 1998.
36. Hodgson, M. Sick building syndrome. Occup. Med. 2000, 15, 571-585.
37. Andersson, M.J.; Andersson, L.; Bende, M.; Millqvist, E.; Nordin, S. The idiopathic environmental intolerance symptom inventory: development, evaluation, and application. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2009, 51, 838-847.
38. Das-Munshi, J.; Rubin, G.J.; Wessely, S. Multiple chemical sensitivities: A systematic review of provocation studies. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2006, 118, 1257-1264.
39. Ariga, K.; Ji, Q.; Hill, J.P.; Kawazoe, N.; Chen, G. Supramolecular approaches to biological therapy. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 2009, 9, 307-320.
40. Goldstone, J.V.; Hamdoun, A.; Cole, B.J.; Howard-Ashby, M.; Nebert, D.W.; Scally, M.; Dean, M.; Epel, D.; Hahn, M.E.; Stegeman, J.J. The chemical defensome: environmental sensing and response genes in the Strongylocentrotus purpuratus genome. Dev. Biol. 2006, 300, 366-384.
41. Meyer, U.A. Drugs in special patient groups: clinical importance of genomics in drug effects. In Melmon and Morrelli's Clinical Pharmacology, 4th ed.; Carruthers, G.S., Hoffmann, B.B., Melmon, K.L., Nieremberg, D.W., Eds.; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA; 2000; pp. 1179-1205.
42. Black, D.W.; Doebbeling, B.N.; Voelker, M.D.; Clarke, W.R.; Woolson, R.F.; Barrett, D.H.; Schwartz, D.A. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Syndrome Symptom Prevalence and Risk Factors in a Military Population. Arch. Intern. Med. 2000, 160, 1169-1176.
43. Thomas, H.V.; Stimpson, N.J.; Weightman, A.L.; Dunstan, F.; Lewis, G. Systematic review of multi-symptom conditions in Gulf War veterans. Psychol. Med. 2006, 36, 735-747.
44. Eis, D.; Helm, D.; Mühlinghaus, T.; Birkner, N.; Dietel, A.; Eikmann, T.; Gieler, U.; Herr, C.; Lacour, M.; Nowak, D.; Pedrosa Gil, F.; Podoll, K.; Renner, B.; Andreas Wiesmüller, G.; Worm, M. The German Multicentre Study on Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS). Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2008, 211, 658-681.
45. Wolfe, F.; Smythe, H.A.; Yunus, M.B.; Bennett, R.M.; Bombardier, C.; Goldenberg, D.L.; Tugwell, P.; Campbell, S.M.; Abeles, M.; Clark, P., et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 Criteria for the Classification of Fibromyalgia: Report of the Multicenter Criteria Committee. Arthritis Rheum. 1990, 33, 160-172.
46. Bradley, L.A. Pathophysiologic mechanisms of fibromyalgia and its related disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatr. 2008, 69, 6-13.
47. George, S.Z.; Dover, G.C.; Wallace, M.R.; Sack, B.K.; Herbstman, D.M.; Aydog, E.; Fillingim, R.B. Biopsychosocial influence on exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness at the shoulder: pain catastrophizing and catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) diplotype predict pain ratings. Clin. J. Pain 2008, 24, 793-801.
48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/cfs/ (accessed on 18 November 2008).
49. Lorusso, L.; Mikhaylova, S.V.; Capelli, E.; Ferrari, D.; Ngonga, G.K.; Ricevuti, G. Immunological aspects of chronic fatigue syndrome. Autoimmun. Rev. 2009, 8, 287-291.
50. Maes, M. Inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways underpinning chronic fatigue, somatization and psychosomatic symptoms. Curr. Opin. Psychiatr. 2009, 22, 75-83.
51. Stejskal, V.D.; Danersund, A.; Lindvall, A.; Hudecek, R.; Nordman, V.; Yaqob, A.; Mayer, W.; Bieger, W.; Lindh, U. Metal-specific lymphocytes: biomarkers of sensitivity in man. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 1999, 20, 289-298.
52. Sterzl, I.; Procházková, J.; Hrdá, P.; Bártová, J.; Matucha, P.; Stejskal, V.D. Mercury and nickel allergy: risk factors in fatigue and autoimmunity. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 1999, 20, 221-228.
53. Mitchell, R.J.; Osborne, P.B.; Haubenreich, J.E. Dental amalgam restorations: daily mercury dose and biocompatibility. J. Long Term Eff. Med. Implants 2005, 15, 709-721.
54. Hahn, L.J.; Kloiber, R.; Leininger, R.W.; Vimy, M.; Lorscheider, F.L. Whole-body imaging of the distribution of mercury released from dental fillings into monkey tissues. FASEB J. 1990, 4, 3256-3260.
55. Harris, H.H.; Vogt, S.; Eastgate, H.; Legnini, D.G.; Hornberger, B.; Cai, Z.; Lai, B.; Lay, P.A. Migration of mercury from dental amalgam through human teeth. J. Synchrotron Radiat. 2008, 15, 123-128.
56. Heintze, U.; Edwardsson, S.; Derand, T.; Birkhed, D. Methylation of mercury from dental amalgam and mercuric chloride by oral streptococci in vitro. Scand. J. Dent. Res. 1983, 91, 150-152.
57. Leistevuo, J.; Leistevuo, T.; Helenius, H.; Pyy, L.; Osterblad, M.; Huovinen, P.; Tenovuo, J. Dental amalgam fillings and the amount of organic mercury in human saliva. Caries Res. 2001, 35, 163-166.
58. Pigatto, P.D.; Brambilla, L.; Guzzi, G. Mercury pink exanthem after dental amalgam placement. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2008, 22, 377-378.
59. Moen, B.; Hollund, B.; Riise, T. Neurological symptoms among dental assistants: a crosssectional study. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 2008, 3, 10.
60. Martin, M.; Broughton, S.; Drangsholt, M. Oral lichen planus and dental materials: a case-control study. Contact Dermatitis 2003, 48, 331-336.
61. Bartova, J.; Prochazkova, J.; Kratka, Z.; Benetkova, K.; Venclikova, Z.; Sterzl, I. Dental amalgam as one of the risk factors in autoimmune diseases. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 2003, 24, 65-67.
62. Hultman, P.; Johansson, U.; Turley, S.; Lindh, U.; Enestrom, S.; Pollard, K. Adverse immunological effects and autoimmunity induced by dental amalgam and alloy in mice. FASEB J. 1994, 8, 1183-1190.
63. Bates, M.N. Mercury amalgam dental fillings: an epidemiologic assessment. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2006, 209, 309-316.
64. Mutter, J.; Curth, A.; Naumann, J.; Deth, R.; Walach, H. Does Inorganic Mercury Play a Role in Alzheimer's Disease? A Systematic Review and an Integrated Molecular Mechanism. J. Alzheimers Dis. 2010, 22, 357-374.
65. Reinhardt, J.W. Side effects: mercury contribution to body burden from dental amalgam. Adv. Dent. Res. 1992, 6, 110-113.
66. Zimmer, H.; Ludwig, H.; Bader, M. Determination of mercury in blood, urine and saliva for the biological monitoring of an exposure from amalgam fillings in a group with self-reported adverse health effects. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2002, 205, 205-211.
67. Wiesmüller, G.A.; Niggemann, H.; Weissbach, W.; Riley, F.; Maarouf, Z.; Dott, W.; Kunert, H.J.; Zerres, K.; Eggermann, T.; Blömeke, B. Sequence variations in subjects with self-reported multiple chemical sensitivity (sMCS): a case-control study. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2008, 71, 786-794.
68. Lorscheider, F.L.; Vimy, M.J.; Summers, A.O. Mercury exposure from "silver" tooth fillings: emerging evidence questions a traditional dental paradigm. FASEB J. 1995, 9, 504-508.
69. Drasch, G.; Böse-O'Reilly, S.; Beinhoff, C.; Roider, G.; Maydl, S. The Mt. Diwata study on the Philippines 1999-assessing mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold mining. Sci. Total Environ. 2001, 267, 151-168.
70. Jones, L.; Bunnell, J.; Stillman, J. A 30-year follow-up of residual effects on New Zealand School Dental Nurses, from occupational mercury exposure. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2007, 26, 367-374.
71. Mutter, J. Is dental amalgam safe for humans? The opinion of the scientific committee of the European Commission. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 2011, 6, 2.
72. Levallois, P. Hypersensitivity of human subjects to environmental electric and magnetic field exposure: a review of the literature. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110 (Suppl 4), 613-618.
73. Portier, C.J.; Wolfe, M.S. Assessment of Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields; National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National Institutes of Health: Research Triangle Park, NC, USA, 1998.
74. Eriksson, N.M.; Stenberg, B.G. Baseline prevalence of symptoms related to indoor environment. Scand. J. Public Health 2006, 34, 387-396.
75. Gangi, S.; Johansson, O. A theoretical model based upon mast cells and histamine to explain the recently proclaimed sensitivity to electric and/or magnetic fields in humans. Med. Hypotheses 2000, 54, 663-671.
76. Belyaev, I. Non-thermal Biological Effects of Microwaves. Microwave Rev. 2005, 11, 13-29.
77. Ziskin, M.C. Electromagnetic hypersensitivity: a COMAR technical information statement. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. 2002, 21, 173-175.
78. Havas, M. Electromagnetic hypersensitivity: biological effects of dirty electricity with emphasis on diabetes and multiple sclerosis. Electromagn. Biol. Med. 2006, 25, 259-268.
79. Ghezel-Ahmadi, D.; Engel, A.; Weidemann, J.; Budnik, L.T.; Baur, X.; Frick, U.; Hauser, S.; Dahmen, N. Heavy metal exposure in patients suffering from electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 774-778.
80. Costa, A.; Branca, V.; Minoia, C.; Pigatto, P.D.; Guzzi, G. Heavy metals exposure and electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 4919-4920.
81. Barbara, G. Editorial: toll-like receptor expression in irritable bowel syndrome: on the alert for a microbial threat? Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2011, 106, 337-339.
82. Yale, S.H.; Musana, A.K.; Kieke, A.; Hayes, J.; Glurich, I.; Chyou, P.H. Applying case definition criteria to irritable bowel syndrome. Clin. Med. Res. 2008, 6, 9-16.
83. Cash, B.D.; Chey, W.D. Irritable bowel syndrome-an evidence-based approach to diagnosis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2004, 19, 1235-1245.
84. Saito, Y.A.; Mitra, N.; Mayer, E.A. Genetic approaches to functional gastrointestinal disorders. Gastroenterology 2010, 138, 1276-1285.
85. Domschke, K.; Freitag, C.M.; Kuhlenbäumer, G.; Schirmacher, A.; Sand, P.; Nyhuis, P.; Jacob, C.; Fritze, J.; Franke, P.; Rietschel, M.; Garritsen, H.S.; Fimmers, R.; Nöthen, M.M.; Lesch, K.P.; Stögbauer, F.; Deckert, J. Association of the functional V158M catechol-O-methyl-transferase polymorphism with panic disorder in women. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004, 7, 183-138.
86. Katz, R.S.; Wolfe, F.; Michaud, K. Fibromyalgia diagnosis: a comparison of clinical, survey, and American College of Rheumatology criteria. Arthritis Rheum. 2006, 54, 169-176.
87. Miller, C.S.; Prihoda, T.J. The Environmental Exposure and Sensitivity Inventory (EESI): a standardized approach for measuring chemical intolerances for research and clinical applications. Toxicol. Ind. Health 1999, 15, 370-385.
88. Andersson, M.J.; Andersson, L.; Bende, M.; Millqvist, E.; Nordin, S. The idiopathic environmental intolerance symptom inventory: development, evaluation, and application. Occup. Environ. Med. 2009, 51, 838-847.
89. Hojo, S.; Kumano, H.; Yoshino, H.; Kakuta, K.; Ishikawa, S. Application of Quick Environment Exposure Sensitivity Inventory (QEESI) for Japanese population: study of reliability and validity of the questionnaire. Toxicol. Ind. Health 2003, 19, 41-49.
90. Their, R.; Brüning, T.; Roos, P.H.; Rihs, H.P.; Golka, K.; Ko, Y.; Bolt, H.M. Markers of genetic susceptibility in human environmental hygiene and toxicology: the role of selected CYP, NAT and GST genes. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2003, 206, 149-171.
91. Wourmhoudt, L.W.; Commandeur, J.N.; Vermeulen, N.P. Genetic polymorphism of human NAcetyltrasferase, cytochrom P450, glutathione-S-transferase, and epoxide hydrolases emzymes: relevance to xenobiotic metabolism and toxicity. Crit. Review Toxicol. 1999, 29, 59-127.
92. Pavek, P.; Dvorak, Z. Xenobiotic-induced transcriptional regulation of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes of the cytochrome P450 superfamily in human extrahepatic tissues. Curr. Drug Metab. 2008, 9, 129-143.
93. Kerkvliet, N.I. AHR-mediated immunomodulation: the role of altered gene transcription. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2009, 77, 746-760.
94. Puga, A.; Ma, C.; Marlowe, J.L. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor cross-talks with multiple signal transduction pathways. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2009, 77, 713-722.
95. Korkina, L.; Pastore, S. The role of redox regulation in the normal physiology and inflammatory diseases of skin. Front. Biosci. (Elite Ed) 2009, 1, 123-141.
96. Jaiswal, A.K. Nrf2 signaling in coordinated activation of antioxidant gene expression. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2004, 36, 1199-1207.
97. Scandalios, J.G. Oxidative stress: molecular perception and transduction of signals triggering antioxidant gene defenses. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 2005, 38, 995-1014.
98. McKeown-Eyssen, G.; Baines, C.; Cole, D.E.; Riley, N.; Tyndale, R.F.; Marshall, L.; Jazmaji, V. Case-control study of genotypes in multiple chemical sensitivity: CYP2D6, NAT1, NAT2, PON1, PON2 and MTHFR. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2004, 33, 971-978.
99. Schnakenberg, E.; Fabig, K.R.; Stanulla, M.; Strobl, N.; Lustig, M.; Fabig, N.; Schloot, W. A cross-sectional study of self-reported chemical-related sensitivity is associated with gene variants of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Environ. Health 2007, 6, 6.
100. Skeith, K.J.; Hussain, M.S.; Coutts, R.T.; Ramos-Remus, C.; Avina-Zubieta, J.A.; Russell, A.S. Adverse drug reactions and debrisoquine/sparteine (P450IID6) polymorphism in patients with fibromyalgia. Clin. Rheumatol. 1997, 16, 291-295.
101. Bolt, H.M.; Their, R. Relevance of the deletion polymorphisms of the glutathione S-transferases GSTT1 and GSTM1 in pharmacology and toxicology. Curr. Drug Metab. 2006, 7, 613-628.
102. Buskila, D. Genetics of chronic pain states. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 2007, 21, 535-547.
103. Mannisto, P.T.; Kaakkola, S. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT): biochemistry, molecular biology, pharmacology, and clinical efficacy of the new selective COMT inhibitors. Pharmacol. Rev. 1999, 51, 593-628.
104. Berg, M.; Arnetz, B.B.; Lidén, S.; Eneroth, P.; Kallner, A. Techno-stress. A psychophysiological study of employees with VDU-associated skin complaints. J. Occup. Med. 1992, 34, 698-701.
105. Baines, C.J.; McKeown-Eyssen, G.E.; Riley, N.; Cole, D.E.C.; Marshall, L.; Loescher, B.; Jazmaji, V. Case-control study of multiple chemical sensitivity, comparing haematology, biochemistry, vitamins and serum volatile organic compound measures. Occup. Med. 2004, 54, 408-418.
106. Maes, M.; Twisk, F.N. Why myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) may kill you: disorders in the inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways may explain cardiovascular disorders in ME/CFS. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 2009, 30, 677-693.
107. Maes, M.; Kubera, M.; Uytterhoeven, M.; Vrydags, N.; Bosmans, E. Increased plasma peroxides as a marker of oxidative stress in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). Med. Sci. Monit. 2011, 17, SC11-SC15.
108. Terlecky, S.R.; Koepke, J.I.; Walton, P.A. Peroxisomes and aging. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2006, 1763, 1749-1754.
109. Haley, R.W.; Billecke, S.; La Du, B.N. Association of low PON1 type Q (type A) arylesterase activity with neurologic symptom complexes in Gulf War veterans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1999, 157, 227-233.
110. Hüppe, M.; Ohnesorge, P.; Krauss, B.; Schmucker, P. Der MCS Fragebogen: Erste Befunde eines neuen Verfahrens zur Beschreibung MCS-ausloesender Stoffe und Symptome. Umweltmed. Forsch. Prax. 2000, 5, 143-153.
111. Müller, K.E.; Schnakenberg, E. Die Bedeutung der Glukuronidierung bei umweltmedizinischen Erkrankungen am Beispiel der UDP-Glukuronosyltransferase 1A1. Umwelt Med. Ges. 2008, 21, 295-300.
112. Berg, N.D.; Rasmussen, H.B.; Linneberg, A.; Brasch-Andersen, C.; Fenger, M.; Dirksen, A.; Vesterhauge, S.; Werge, T.; Elberling, J. Genetic susceptibility factors for multiple chemical sensitivity revisited. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2010, 213, 131-139.
113. Genuis, S.J. The chemical erosion of human health: adverse environmental exposure and in-utero pollution-determinants of congenital disorders and chronic disease. J. Perinat. Med. 2006, 34, 185-195.
114. Rea, W.J. Chemical Sensitivity (Volume 4): Tools of Diagnosis and Methods of Treatment; Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1997.
115. Buffington, T. Developmental influences on medically unexplained symptoms. Psychother. Psychosom. 2009, 78, 139-144.
116. Genuis, S.J. Our genes are not our destiny: incorporating molecular medicine into clinical practice. J. Eval. Clin. Pract. 2008, 14, 94-102.
117. Patarca, R. Cytokines and chronic fatigue syndrome. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2001, 933, 185-200.
118. Dearman, R.J.; Kimber, I. Cytokine profiling and chemical allergy. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2002, 185, 228-229.
119. Jammes, Y.; Steinberg, J.G.; Delliaux, S.; Brégeon, F. Chronic fatigue syndrome combines increased exercise inducedoxidative stress and reduced cytokine and Hsp responses. J. Intern. Med. 2009, 266, 196-206.
120. Levin, A.S.; Byers, V.S. Environmental illness: a disorder of immune regulation. Occup. Med. 1987, 2, 669-681.
121. Valentine-Thon, E.; Müller, K.; Guzzi, G.; Kreisel, S.; Ohnsorge, P.; Sandkamp, M. LTT-MELISA is clinically relevant for detecting and monitoring metal sensitivity. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 2006, 27, 17-24.
122. Klein, R.; Schwenk, M.; Heinrich-Ramm, R.; Templeton, D.M. The lymphocyte transformation test for sensitation to berillium and other metals. Pure Appl. Chem. 2004, 76, 1269-1281.
123. Hybenova, M.; Hrda, P.; Procházková, J.; Stejskal, V.; Sterzl, I. The role of environmental factors in autoimmune thyroiditis. Neuroendocrinol. Lett. 2010, 31, 283-289.
124. Pall, M.L. Elevated nitric oxide/peroxynitrite theory of multiple chemical sensitivity: central role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the sensitivity mechanism. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 1461-1464.
125. Jammes, Y.; Steinberg, J.G.; Mambrini, O.; Brégeon, F.; Delliaux, S. Chronic fatigue syndrome: assessment of increased oxidative stress and altered muscle excitability in response to incremental exercise. J. Intern. Med. 2005, 257, 299-310.
126. Kennedy, G.; Spence, V.A.; McLaren, M.; Hill, A.; Underwood, C.; Belch, J.J. Oxidative stress levels are raised in chronic fatigue syndrome and are associated with clinical symptoms. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2005, 39, 584-589.
127. Pizzichini, M.; Fonzi, M.; Sugherini, L.; Fonzi, L.; Gasparoni, A.; Comporti, M.; Pompella, A. Release of mercury from dental amalgam and its influence on salivary antioxidant activity. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 284, 19-25.
128. Di Pietro, A.; Visalli, G.; La Maestra, S. Biomonitoring of DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes of subjects with dental restorative fillings. Mutat. Res. 2008, 650, 115-122.
129. Logan, A.C.; Wong, C. Chronic fatigue syndrome: oxidative stress and dietary modifications. Altern. Med. Rev. 2001, 6, 450-459.
130. Cordero, M.D.; Moreno-Fernandez, A.M.; deMiguel, M.; Bonal, P.; Campa, F.; Jimenez-Jimenez, L.M.; Ruiz-Losada, A.; Sánchez-Domínguez, B.; Sánchez Alcázar, J.A.; Salviati, L.; Navas, P. Coenzyme Q10 distribution in blood is altered in patients with fibromyalgia. Clin. Biochem. 2009, 42, 732-735.
131. Bagis, S.; Tamer, L.; Sahin, G.; Bilgin, R.; Guler, H.; Ercan, B.; Erdogan, C. Free radicals and antioxidants in primary fibromyalgia: an oxidative stress disorder? Rheumatol. Int. 2005, 25, 188-190.
132. Pall, M.L. Common etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and multiple chemical sensitivity via elevated nitric oxide/peroxynitrite. Med. Hypotheses 2001, 57, 139-145.
133. Chung, C.P.; Titova, D.; Oeser, A.; Randels, M.; Avalos, I.; Milne, G.L.; Morrow, J.D.; Stein, C.M. Oxidative stress in fibromyalgia and its relationship to symptoms. Clin. Rheumatol. 2009, 28, 435-438.
134. Fulle, S.; Mecocci, P.; Fano, G.; Vecchiet, I.; Vecchini, A.; Ricciotti, D.; Cherubini, A.; Pizzigallo, E.; Vecchiet, L.; Senin, U.; Beal, M.F. Specific oxidative alterations in vastus lateralis muscle of patients with the diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 2000, 29, 1252-1259.
135. Bossuyt, P.M.; Reitsma, J.B.; Bruns, D.E.; Gatsonis, C.A.; Glasziou, P.P.; Irwig, L.M.; Lijmer, J.G.; Moher, D.; Rennie, D.; de Vet, H.C. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD initiative. Clin. Chem. 2003, 49, 1-6.
136. Kumar, D. From evidence-based medicine to genomic medicine. Genomic Med. 2007, 1, 95-104.
137. Heuser, G.; Wu, J.C. Deep subcortical (including limbic) hypermetabolism in patients with chemical intolerance: human PET studies. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2001, 933, 319-322.
138. Mayberg, H. Critique: SPECT studies of multiple chemical sensitivity. Toxicol. Ind. Health 1994, 10, 661-665.
139. Bornschein, S.; Hausteiner, C.; Drzezga, A.; Bartenstein, P.; Schwaiger, M.; Förstl, H.; Zilker, T. PET in patients with clear-cut multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). Nuklearmedizin 2002, 41, 233-239.
140. Bartenstein, P.; Grünwald, F.; Herholz, K.; Kuwert, T.; Tatsch, K.; Sabri, O.; Weiller, C. Role of positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission tomography (SPECT) in so-called "multiple chemical sensitivity". Nuklearmedizin 1999, 38, 297-301.
141. Gibson, P.R.; Elms, A.N.; Ruding, L.A. Perceived treatment efficacy for conventional and alternative therapies reported by persons with multiple chemical sensitivity. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 1498-1504.
142. Johansson, O. Electrohypersensitivity: state-of-the-art of a functional impairment. Electromagn. Biol. Med. 2006, 25, 245-258.
143. Scordo, M.G.; Caputi, A.P.; D'Arrigo, C.; Fava, G.; Spina, E. Allele and genotype frequencies of CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 in an Italian population. Pharmacol. Res. 2004, 50, 195-200.
144. Riedl, M.A.; Casillas, A.M. Adverse drug reactions: types and treatment. Am. Fam. Physician 2003, 68, 1781-1790.
145. Guttman-Yassky, E.; Weltfriend, S.; Bergman, R. Resolution of orofacial granulomatosis with amalgam removal. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venerol. 2003, 17, 344-347.
146. Dunsche, A.; Kastel, I.; Terheyden, H.; Springer, I.; Christophers, E.; Brasch, J. Oral lichenoid reactions associated with amalgam: improvement after amalgam removal. Br. J. Dermatol. 2003, 148, 70-76.
147. Hargreaves, R.J.; Evans, J.G.; Janota, I.; Magos, L.; Cavanagh, J.B. Persistant mercury in nerve cells 16 years after metallic mercury poisoning. Neuropath. Appl. Neurobiol. 1988, 14, 443-452.
148. Opitz, H.; Schweinsberg, F.; Grossmann, T.; Wendt-Gallitelli, M.F.; Meyermann, R. Demonstration of mercury in the human brain and other organs 17 years after metallic mercury exposure. Clin. Neuropath. 1996, 15, 139-144.
149. Rooney, J.P. The role of thiols, dithiols, nutritional factors and interacting ligands in the toxicology of mercury. Toxicology 2007, 234, 145-156.
150. Aposhian, H.V.; Morgan, D.L.; Queen, H.L.; Maiorino, R.M.; Aposhian, M.M. Vitamin C, glutathione, or lipoic acid did not decrease brain or kidney mercury in rats exposed to mercury vapor. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 2003, 41, 339-347.
151. Goyer, R.A. Nutrition and metal toxicity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 61, 646S-650S.
152. Ishibashi, M.; Tonori, H.; Miki, T.; Miyajima, E.; Kudo, Y.; Tsunoda, M.; Sakabe, K.; Aizawa, Y. Classification of patients complaining of sick house syndrome and/or multiple chemical sensitivity. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2007, 211, 223-233.
153. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Indoor Air Quality: A Legitimate OSH Concern; Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: Hamilton, Canada, 2008.
154. US Department of Education. Information Memorandum: Multiple Chemical Sensitivity; RSA-IM-02-04; US Department of Education: Washington, DC, USA, 2001.
155. Rappaport, S.M.; Kim, S.; Lan, Q.; Vermeulen, R.; Waidyanatha, S.; Zhang, L.; Li, G.; Yin, S.; Hayes, R.B.; Rothman, N.; Smith, M.T. Evidence hat humans metabolize benzene via two pathways. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 946-952.
156. Cooper, C. Multiple chemical sensitivity in the clinical setting. Am. J. Nurs. 2007, 107, 40-47.
157. Randolph, T.G. The ecologic unit-part I. Hosp. Manag. 1964, 97, 45-47.
158. Anema, S. Hospitalization for the Chemically Sensitive Patient Hospital Protocol Guidelines Dallas 1999-Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Guidelines for South Australian Hospitals; SA Health: Adelaide, Australia, 2010.
159. Fisher, M.M.; Rose, M. Anaesthesia for patients with idiopathic environmental intolerance and chronic fatigue syndrome. Br. J. Anaesth. 2008, 101, 486-491.
160. Ishikawa, S.; Miyata, M. Chemical sensitivity and its clinical characteristics in Japan. Asian Med. J. 2010, 43, 7-15.
161. Joffres, M.R.; Sampalli, T.; Fox, R.A. Physiologic and symptomatic responses to low-level substances in individuals with and without chemical sensitivities: a randomized controlled blinded pilot booth study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1178-1183.
162. Fox, R.A.; Joffres, M.R.; Sampalli, T.; Casey, J. The impact of a multidisciplinary, holistic approach to management of patients diagnosed with multiple chemical sensitivity on health care utilization costs: an observational study. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2007, 13, 223-229.
163. Sampalli, T.; Shepherd, M.; Fox, R. Boundary objects in the multidisciplinary care management of chronic conditions: multiple chemical sensitivity. Stud. Health Technol. Inform. 2009, 143, 534-539.
164. Eltiti, S.; Wallace, D.; Zougkou, K.; Russo, R.; Joseph, S.; Rasor, P.; Fox, E. Development and evaluation of the electromagnetic hypersensitivity questionnaire. Bioelectromagnetics 2007, 28, 137-151.
165. Skovbjerg, S.; Johansen, J.D.; Rasmussen, A.; Thorsen, H.; Elberling, J. General practitioners' experiences with provision of healthcare to patients with self-reported multiple chemical sensitivity. Scand. J. Prim. Health Care 2009, 27, 148-152.