Identification of developmentally toxic drinking water disinfection byproducts and evaluation of data relevant to mode of action

Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology

Volumn 254, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 100-126

  Colman, Joan ^b   Rice, Glenn E ^a   Wright, J Michael ^a   Hunter, E Sidney ^c   Teuschler, Linda K ^a   Lipscomb, John C ^a   Hertzberg, Richard C ^d   Simmons, Jane Ellen ^c   Fransen, Margaret ^b   Osier, Mark ^b   Narotsky, Michael G ^c  

^a U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^b SYRACUSE RESEARCH CORPORATION   (United States)

^c U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^d EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular malformation; Developmental toxicity; Drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs); Full litter resorption; Low birth weight; Mode of action; Neural tube defect; Spontaneous abortion

Indexed keywords

1,1,3,3 TETRACHLOROPROPANONE; [3 CHLORO 4 (DICHLOROMETHYL) 5 HYDROXY 2(5H) FURANONE]; BROMATE; BROMOACETIC ACID; BROMODICHLOROACETIC ACID; BROMODICHLOROMETHANE; BROMOFORM; CHLORAL HYDRATE; CHLORINE DIOXIDE; CHLORITE; CHLOROACETIC ACID; CHLOROACETONITRILE; CHLOROFORM; CHLOROPICRIN; DIBROMOCHLOROMETHANE; DICHLOROACETIC ACID; DICHLOROACETONITRILE; DICHLOROMETHANE; DISINFECTION BYPRODUCT; DRINKING WATER; FORMALDEHYDE; HALOACETONITRILE; HALOPROPANONE; METHYL BROMIDE; NITROSAMINE; TERATOGENIC AGENT; TRIBROMOACETIC ACID; TRICHLOROACETIC ACID; TRICHLOROACETONITRILE; TRIHALOMETHANE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR MALFORMATION; CRANIOFACIAL MALFORMATION; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; DISINFECTION; FLUID INTAKE; HEART VENTRICLE SEPTUM DEFECT; HUMAN; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; NEURAL TUBE DEFECT; NONHUMAN; PREGNANCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION;

ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS; ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR ABNORMALITIES; DISINFECTANTS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT, LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; INFANT, NEWBORN; NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS; PREGNANCY; RISK ASSESSMENT; WATER PURIFICATION; WATER SUPPLY;

ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS; RODENTIA;

EID: 79960060281     PISSN: 0041008X     EISSN: 10960333     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.02.002     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Aggazzotti G., Righi E., Fantuzzi G., Biasotti B., Ravera G., Kanitz S., Barbone F., Sansebastiano G., Battaglia M.A., Leoni V., Fabiani L., Triassi M., Sciacca S. Chlorination by-products (CBPs) in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Italy. J. Water Health 2004, 2(4):233-247. Collaborative Group for the Study of Chlorinated Drinking Waters and Pregnancy.
2. Andrews J.E., Nichols H., Schmid J., Hunter E.S. Inhibition of neural crest cell migration by the water disinfection by-products dichloro-, dibromo- and bromochloroacetic acid. Toxicologist. 2001, 60(1):217.
3. Andrews J.E., Nichols H.P., Schmid J.E., Mole L.M., Hunter E.S., Klinefelter G.R. Developmental toxicity of mixtures: the water disinfection by-products dichloro-, dibromo- and bromochloro acetic acid in rat embryo culture. Reprod. Toxicol. 2004, 19(1):111-116.
4. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 1992. Toxicological profile for bromomethane. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
5. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 2000. Toxicological profile for methylene chloride. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
6. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 2003. Toxicological profile for bromoform/dibromochloromethane. Draft for public comment (Update). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
7. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 2004. Guidance manual for the assessment of joint toxic action of chemical mixtures. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
8. Baeder, C., Hoffmann, T., 1988. Initial Submission: Inhalation Embryotoxicity Study of Chloroform in Wistar Rats. Final. With attachments and cover letter dated 02/21/92. Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfort Am. Main: Pharma Res. Toxicol. Pathol. EPA/OTS Doc#88-920001208. Report No. 88.0961. TSCA 8E Submission, OTS0000635.
9. Baeder, C. Hoffmann, T., 1991a. Initial Submission-Chloroform: Supplementary Inhalation Embryotoxicity Study in Wistar Rats. Final. With attachments and cover letter dated 12/24/91. NTIS/OTS0535017 (TSCA 8E submission). EPA/OTS Doc#88-920000566. September 12, 1991. Performed by Hoechst Aktiengesellschaff, Germany, Sponsored by Hoechst AG and Dow Europe SA. Report No. 91.0902.
10. Baeder, C. Hoffmann, T., 1991b. Amendment No. 1 to Report No. 91.0902-Chloroform: Supplementary Inhalation Embryotoxicity Study in Wistar Rats. With cover letter dated 06/25/93. NTIS/OTS0535017-1 (TSCA 8E submission). EPA/OTS Doc#89-930000184. Performed by Hoechst Aktiengesellschaff, Germany, Sponsored by Hoechst AG and Dow Europe SA. Report No. 92.1047.
11. Bercz J.P., Jones L.L., Harrington R.M., Bawa R., Condie L. Mechanistic aspects of ingested chlorine dioxide on thyroid function: impact of oxidants on iodide metabolism. Environ. Health Perspect. 1986, 69:249-255.
12. Bielmeier S.R., Best D.S., Guidici D.L., Narotsky M.G. Pregnancy loss in the rat caused by bromodichloromethane. Toxicol. Sci. 2001, 59(2):309-315.
13. Bielmeier S.R., Best D.S., Narotsky M.G. Strain comparison of endocrine response in rats to bromodichloromethane (BDCM) during pregnancy. Toxicologist. 2002, 66(1-S):374.
14. Bielmeier S.R., Best D.S., Narotsky M.G. Serum hormone characterization and exogeneous hormone rescue of bromodichloromethane-induced pregnancy loss in the F344 rat. Toxicol. Sci. 2004, 77:101-108.
15. Bielmeier S.R., Murr A.S., Best D.S., Harrison R.A., Pegram R.A., Goldman J.M., Narotsky M.G. Effects of bromodichloromethane on ex vivo and in vitro luteal function and bromodichloromethane tissue dosimetry in the pregnant F344 rat. Toxicol. In Vitro 2007, 21:91-928.
16. Borzelleca, J.F., Carchman, RA., 1982. Effects of Selected Organic Drinking Water Contaminants on Male Reproduction. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA/600/1-82/009. PB82-259847.
17. Bove F.J., Fulcomer B.C., Klotz J.B., Smart J.E., Dufficy E.M., Savin J.E. Public drinking water contamination and birth outcomes. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995, 141(9):850-862.
18. Bove F., Shim Y., Zeitz P. Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110(Suppl 1):61-74.
19. Breslin, W.J., Zublotny, C.L., Brabley. G.J., Lomax, L.G., 1990. Methyl Bromide Inhalation Teratology Study in New Zealand White Rabbits. Toxicology Research Laboratory, Health and Environmental Studies, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, MI. EPAMRID41580401. Study K-00681-033. OTS Number 8EHQ-1189-0844 S. The Toxicology Research Laboratory. Methyl Bromide Industry Panel, DPR Vol. 123-127. #95930.
20. Brown-Woodman P.D.C., Hayes L.C., Huq F., Herlihy C., Picker K., Webster W.S. In vitro assessment of the effect of halogenated hydrocarbons: chloroform, dichloromethane, and dibromoethane on embryonic development of the rat. Teratology 1998, 57(6):321-333.
21. Carlton B.D., Smith M.K. Reproductive effects of alternate disinfectants and their by-products. Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Water Chlorination-Environmental Impact and Health Effects 1985, 295-305. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Williamsburg, Virginia, June 3-8, 1984.
22. Carlton B.D., Habash D.L., Basaran A.H., George E.L., Smith M.K. Sodium chlorite administration in Long-Evans rats: reproductive and endocrine effects. Environ. Res. 1987, 42:238-245.
23. Carlton B.D., Basaran A.H., Mezza L.E., George E.L., Smith M.K. Reproductive effects in Long-Evans rats exposed to chlorine dioxide. Environ. Res. 1991, 56(2):170-177.
24. Cedergren M.I., Selbing A.J., Lofman O., Kallen B.A. Chlorination byproducts and nitrate in drinking water and risk for congenital cardiac defects. Environ. Res. 2002, 89(2):124-130.
25. Chen J., Douglas G.C., Thirkill T.L., Lohstroh P.N., Bielmeier S.R., Narotsky M.G., Best D.S., Harrison R.A., Natarjan K., Pegram R.A., Overstreet J.W., Lasley B.L. Effect of bromodichloromethane on chorionic gonadotrophin secretion by human placental trophoblast cultures. Toxicol. Sci. 2003, 76(1):75-82.
26. Chen J., Thirkill T.L., Lohstroh P.N., Bielmeier S.R., Narotsky M.G., Best D.S., Harrison R.A., Natarajan K., Pegram R.A., Overstreet J.W., Lasley B.L., Douglas G.C. Bromodichloromethane inhibits human placental trophoblast differentiation. Toxicol. Sci. 2004, 78(1):166-174.
27. Chisholm K., Cook A., Bower C., Weinstein P. Risk of birth defects in Australian communities with high brominated disinfection by-product levels. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116(9):1267-1273.
28. Christ S.A., Read E.J., Stober J.A., Smith M.K. The developmental toxicity of bromochloro-acetonitrile in pregnant Long-Evans rats. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 1995, 5(2):175-188.
29. Christ S.A., Stober J.A., Smith K. Developmental effects of trichloroacetonitrile administered in corn oil to pregnant Long-Evans rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1996, 47(3):233-247.
30. Christian M.S., York R.G., Hoberman A.M., Diener R.M., Fisher L.C. Oral (drinking water) developmental toxicity studies of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats and rabbits. Int. J. Toxicol. 2001, 20(4):225-237.
31. Christian M.S., York R.G., Hoberman A.M., Diener R.M., Fisher L.C., Gates G.A. Biodisposition of dibromoacetic acid (DBA) and bromodichloromethane (BDCM) administered to rats and rabbits in drinking water during range-finding reproduction and developmental toxicity studies. Int. J. Toxicol. 2001, 20(4):239-253.
32. Christian M.S., York R.G., Hoberman A.M., Fisher L.C., Brown W.R. Oral (drinking water) two-generation reproductive toxicity study of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats. Int. J. Toxicol. 2002, 21(2):115-146.
33. Christian M.S., York R.G., Hoberman A.M., Frazee J., Fisher L.C., Brown W.R., Creasy D.M. Oral (drinking water) two-generation reproductive toxicity study of dibromoacetic acid (DBA) in rats. Int. J. Toxicol. 2002, 21(4):237-276.
34. CMA (Chemical Manufacturers Association). 1996. Sodium Chlorite: Drinking Water Rat Two Generation Reproductive Toxicity Study. Chemical Manufacturers Association. Quintiles Report Ref. CMA/17/96.
35. Couri D., Miller C.H., Bull R.J., Delphia J.M., Ammar E.M. Assessment of maternal toxicity, embryotoxicity and teratogenic potential of sodium chlorite in Sprague-Dawley rats. Environ. Health Perspect. 1982, 46:25-29.
36. Crabb D.W., Yount E.A., Harris R.A. The metabolic effects of dichloroacetate. Metabolism 1981, 30(10):1024-1039.
37. Cummings A.M., Hedge J.M. Dibromoacetic acid does not adversely affect early pregnancy in rats. Reprod. Toxicol. 1998, 12(4):445-448.
38. Dodds L., King W.D. Relations between trichloromethane compounds and birth defects. Occup. Environ. Med. 2001, 58(7):443-446.
39. Dodds L., King W., Woolcott C., Pole J. Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and adverse birth outcomes. Epidemiology 1999, 10(3):233-237.
40. Dodds L., King W., Allen A.C., Armson B.A., Fell D.B., Nimrod C. Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and risk of stillbirth. Epidemiology 2004, 15(2):179-186.
41. Epstein D.L., Nolen G.A., Randall J.L., Christ S.A., Read E.J., Stober J.A., Smith M.K. Cardiopathic effects of dichloroacetate in the fetal Long-Evans rat. Teratology 1992, 46(3):225-235.
42. Faustman E.M., Ponce R.A., Seeley M.R., Whittaker S.G. Experimental approaches to evaluate mechanisms of developmental toxicity. Handbook of Developmental Toxicology 2006, 15-80. CRC Press, Inc., Baca Raton. R.D. Hood (Ed.).
43. Feron V.J., Groten J.P. Toxicological evaluation of chemical mixtures. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2002, 40(6):825-839.
44. Fisher J.W., Channel S.R., Eggers J.S., Johnson P.D., MacMahon K.L., Goodyear C.D., Sudberry G.L., Warren D.A., Latendresse J.R., Graeter L.J. Trichloroethylene, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetic acid: do they affect fetal rat heart development?. Int. J. Toxicol. 2001, 20(5):257-267.
45. Gallagher M.D., Nuckols J.R., Stallones L., Savitz D.A. Exposure to trihalomethanes and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Epidemiology 1998, 9(5):484-489.
46. Gill M.W., Swanson M.S., Murphy S.R., Bailey G.P. Two-generation reproduction and developmental neurotoxicity study with sodium chlorite in the rat. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2000, 20(4):291-303.
47. Gordon D.A., Wessendarp T.K., Crocker W., Smith M.K., Roth A.C. Comparative absorption and distribution of radiolabeled trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) in pregnant rats from corn oil (CO) and tricaprylin (TCAP) vehicles. Teratology 1991, 43(5):427.
48. Graves C.G., Matanoski G.M., Tardiff R.G. Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: a critical review. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2001, 34(2):103-124.
49. Hardin B.D., Manson J.M. Absence of dichloromethane teratogenicity with inhalation exposure in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1980, 52:22-28.
50. Harrington R.M., Romano R.R., Irvine L. Developmental toxicity of sodium chlorite in the rabbit. J. Am. Coll. Toxicol. 1995, 14(2):108-118.
51. Hill A.B. The environment and disease: association or causation?. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 1965, 58:295-300.
52. Hinckley A.F., Bachand A.M., Reif J.S. Late pregnancy exposures to disinfection by-products and growth-related birth outcomes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113(12):1803-1813.
53. Hoffman C.S., Mendola P., Savitz D.A., Herring A.H., Loomis D., Hartmann K.E., Singer P.C., Weinberg H.S., Olshan A.F. Drinking water disinfection by-product exposure and fetal growth. Epidemiology 2008, 19(5):729-737.
54. Hongve D., Andersen T. Factors determining the light absorption of aquatic humic substances. Finn. Humus News 1991, 3:209-214.
55. Hunter E.S., Rogers E.H. Dysmorphogenic effects of three metabolites of haloacetic acids in mouse embryo culture. Teratology 1999, 59(6):402.
56. Hunter E.S., Rogers E.H., Schmid J.E., Richard A. Comparative effects of haloacetic acids in whole embryo culture. Teratology 1996, 54(2):57-64.
57. Hunter E.S., Smith J., Andrews J. Haloacetic acids and kinase inhibitors perturb mouse neural crest cells in vitro. Teratology 2001, 63(6):255.
58. Hunter E.S., Blanton M., Karoly E., Rosen M. Exposure to a P13kinase inhibitor produces dysmorphogenesis in neurulation-staged mouse embryos in culture. Teratol. Soc. Abstr. 2005, 289:301.
59. Hunter E.S., Rogers E., Blanton M., Richard A., Chernoff M. Bromochloro-haloacetic acids: Effects on mouse embryos in vitro and QSAR considerations. Reprod. Toxicol. 2006, 21(3):260-266.
60. Hunter E.S., Blanton M.R., Rogers E.H., Mole M.L., Andrews J., Chernoff N. Short-term exposures to dihaloacetic acids produce dysmorphosgenesis in mouse conceptuses in vitro. Reprod. Toxicol. 2006, 22:443-448.
61. Hunter E.S., Rogers E.H., Blanton M.R. Minimal role for reactive oxygen species in dichloroacetic acid-induced dysmorphology in mouse whole embryo culture. Birth Defects Res. Clin. Mol. Teratol. 2006, 76(5):326.
62. Hwang B.F., Magnus P., Jaakkola J.J.K. Risk of specific birth defects in relation to chlorination and the amount of natural organic matter in the water supply. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2002, 156(4):374-382.
63. Hwang B.F., Jaakkola J.J.K., Guo H.R. Water disinfection by-products and the risk of specific birth defects: a population-based cross-sectional study in Taiwan. Environ. Health 2008, 7:23-34.
64. Mechanistic Research on Disinfection By-products. Report from an ILSI Workshop, October 15, 1998 1999, ILSI (International Life Sciences Institute, International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC.
65. Infante-Rivard C. Drinking water contaminants, gene polymorphisms, and fetal growth. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112(11):1213-1216.
66. Dietary Reference Intakes 1998, 196-206. Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 212-215, 240-260, 269-270; App M. 523-526.
67. IPCS (International Programme on Chemical Safety). 2005. IPCS Framework for Analyzing the Relevance of a Cancer Mode of Action for Humans. Public Review Draft. April. International Programme on Chemical Safety. Available at http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/areas/frameworktextreview. pdf.
68. IRDC (International Research and Development Corporation). 1976. Dichloromethane and Ninety Day Oral Toxicity Study in Rats. (Reproduction and ninety day oral toxicity study in rats). Performed by International Research and Development Corporation. Submitted by General Electric Company to U.S. EPA, Office of Toxic Substances under TSCA 8(d). Fiche No. OTS0205887.
69. Jaakkola J.J., Magnus P., Skrondal A., Hwang B.F., Becher G., Dybing E. Foetal growth and duration of gestation relative to water chlorination. Occup. Environ. Med. 2001, 58(7):437-442.
70. John J.A., Murray F.J., Quast J.F., Keeler P.A., Schwetz B.A., Staples R.E. 1,1,3,3-Tetrachloroacetone: teratogenicity study in mice and rabbits. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1982, 2(5):220-225.
71. Johnson P.D., Dawson B.V., Goldberg S.J. Cardiac teratogenicity of trichloroethylene metabolites. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1998, 32(2):540-545.
72. Kallen B.A.J., Robert E. Drinking water chlorination and delivery outcome-a registry-based study in Sweden. Reprod. Toxicol. 2000, 14:303-309.
73. Kallman M.J., Kaempf G.L., Balster R.L. Behavioral toxicity of chloral in mice: an approach to evaluation. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1984, 6(2):137-146.
74. Kanitz S., Franco Y., Patrone V., Caltabellotta M., Raffo E., Riggi C., Timitilli D., Ravera G. Association between drinking water disinfection and somatic parameters at birth. Environ. Health Perspect. 1996, 104(5):516-520.
75. Karoly E.D., Schmid J.E., Blanton M.R., Hunter E.S. Altered gene expression of mouse embryo cultures exposed to bromochloroacetic acid. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 2004, 70(5):250.
76. Kim H.J., Bruckner J.V., Dallas C.E., Gallo J.M. Effect of dosing vehicles on the pharmacokinetics of orally administered carbon tetrachloride in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990, 102(1):50-60.
77. Kim H.J., Odendhal S., Bruckner J.V. Effect of dosing vehicles on the acute hepatotoxicity of carbon tetrachloride in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990, 102(1):34-49.
78. Klinefelter G.R., Hunter E.S., Narotsky M.G. Reproductive and developmental toxicity associated with disinfection by-products in drinking water. Microbial Pathogens and Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: Heath Effects and Management of Risks 2001, 309-324. ILSI Press, Washington. G.F. Craun, S.F. Hauchman, D.E. Robinson (Eds.).
79. Klotz, J.B., Pyrch, L.A., 1998. A case-control study of neural tube defects and drinking water contaminants. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA. NTIS PB98-111644.
80. Klotz J.B., Pyrch L.A. Neural tube defects and drinking water disinfection by-products. Epidemiology 1999, 10(4):383-390.
81. Kramer M.D., Lynch C.F., Isacson P., Hanson J.W. The association of waterborne chloroform with intrauterine growth retardation. Epidemiology 1992, 3(5):407-413.
82. Krasner S.W., Pastor S., Chinn R., Sclimenti M.J., Weinberg H.S., Richardson S.D. The Occurrence of a New Generation of DBPs (Beyond the ICR) 2001.
83. Krasner, S.W., Weinberg, H.S., Richardson, S.D., Pastor, S.J., Chinn, R., Sclimenti, M.J., Onstad, G.D., Thruston Jr, A.D., 2006. Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 7175-7178.
84. Lewis C., Suffet I.H., Ritz B. Estimated effects of disinfection by-products on birth weight in a population served by a single water utility. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2006, 163(1):38-47.
85. Lewis C., Suffet I.H., Hoggatt K., Ritz B. Estimated effects of disinfection by-products on preterm birth in a population served by a single water utility. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115(2):290-295.
86. Lilly P.D., Simmons J.E., Pegram R.A. Dose-dependent vehicle differences in the acute toxicity of bromodichloromethane. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1994, 23:132-140.
87. Lipscomb J.C., El-Demerdash E., Ahmed A.E. Haloacetonitriles: metabolism and toxicity. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2009, 198:169-200.
88. MacLehose R.F., Savitz D.A., Herring A.H., Hartmann K.E., Singer P.C., Weinberg H.S. Drinking water disinfection by-products and time to pregnancy. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 19(3):451-458.
89. Magnus P., Jaakkola J.J., Skrondal A., Alexander J., Becher G., Krogh T., Dybing E. Water chlorination and birth defects. Epidemiology 1999, 10(5):513-517.
90. Meek M.E., Bucher J.R., Cohen S.M., Dellarco V., Hill R.N., Lehman-McKeeman L.D., Longfellow D.G., Pastoor T., Seed J., Patton D.E. A framework for human relevance analysis of information on carcinogenic modes of action. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2003, 33(6):591-653.
91. Miles A.M., Singer P.C., Ashley D.L., Lynberg M.C., Mendola P., Langlois P.H., Nuckols J.R. Comparison of trihalomethanes in tap water and blood. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36:1692-1698.
92. Miltner R.J., Rice E.W., Stevens A.A. Pilot-Scale Investigation of the Formation and Control of Disinfection Byproducts 1990, 1787-1802.
93. Mobley S.A., Taylor D.H., Laurie R.D., Pfohl R.J. Chlorine dioxide depresses T3 uptake and delays development of locomotor activity in young rats. Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects 1990, Vol. 6:347-360. Lewis Publications, Chelsea.
94. Moore G.S., Calabrese E.J., Leonard D.A. Effects of chlorite exposure on conception rate and litters of A/J strain mice. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1980, 25(5):689-696.
95. Murray F.J., Schwetz B.A., McBride J.G., Staples R.E. Toxicity of inhaled chloroform in pregnant mice and their offspring. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1979, 50(3):515-522.
96. Narotsky M.G., Kavlock R.J. A multidisciplinary approach to toxicological screening: II. Developmental toxicity. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1995, 45(2):145-171.
97. Narotsky M.G., Laffan S.B. Animal models for studying miscarriage: illustration with study of drinking water disinfection byproducts. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 2004, 70(5):283.
98. Narotsky M.G., Hamby B.T., Mitchell D.S., Kavlock R.J. Full-litter resorptions caused by low-molecular weight halocarbons in F-344 rats. Teratology 1992, 45:472-473.
99. Narotsky M.G., Hamby B.T., Mitchell D.S., Kavlock R.J. Bromoform requires a longer exposure period than carbon tetrachloride to induce pregnancy loss in F-344 rats. Toxicologist. 1993, 13:255.
100. Narotsky M.B., Hamby B.T., Best D.S., Hunter E.S. In vivo developmental effects of dibromoacetic acid (DBA) and dichloroacetic acid (DCA) in mice. Teratology 1996, 53(2):96-97.
101. Narotsky M.G., Pegram R.A., Kavlock R.J. Effect of dosing vehicle on the developmental toxicity of bromodichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1997, 40(1):30-36.
102. Narotsky M.G., Brownie C.F., Kavlock R.J. Critical period of carbon tetrachloride-induced pregnancy loss in Fischer-344 rats, with insights into the detection of resorption sites by ammonium sulfide staining. Teratology 1997, 56:252-261.
103. Narotsky M.G., Best D.S., Rogers E.H., Hunter E.H. Developmental effects of disinfectant by-products bromoform, bromodichloromethane, bromodichloroactetic acid, and bromochloroacetic acid in mice. Teratology 2001, 63(6):279.
104. Narotsky M.G., Best D.S., McDonald A., Godin E.A., Hunter E.S., Simmons J.E. Pregnancy loss and eye malformations in offspring of F344 rats following gestational exposure to mixtures of regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. Reprod. Toxicol. 2011, 31(1):59-65.
105. Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Toledano M.B., Eaton N.E., Fawell J., Elliott P. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review. Occup. Environ. Med. 2000, 57(2):73-85. 10.1136/oem.57.2.73.
106. Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Toledano M.B., Bennett J., Best N., Hambly P., de Hoogh C., Wellesley D., Boyd P.A., Abramsky L., Dattani N., Fawell J., Briggs D., Jarup L., Elliot P. Chlorination disinfection by-products and risk of congenital anomalies in England and Wales. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116(2):216-222.
107. Nitschke K.D., Eisenbrandt D.L., Lomax L.G., Rao K.S. Methylene chloride: two-generation inhalation reproductive study in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1988, 11(1):60-67.
108. Mechanisms of developmental toxicity. Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment. National Research Council 2000, 58-87. NRC (National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington.
109. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1988. Chloroform: Reproduction and Fertility Assessment in CD-1 Mice when Administered by Gavage. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTP-89-018.
110. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1989. Bromoform: Reproduction and Fertility Assessment in Swiss CD-1 Mice when Administered by Gavage. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTP-89-068. PB89-169254.
111. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1996. Final Report on the Short Term Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Chlorodibromomethane (CAS #124-48-1) Administered in Drinking Water to Sprague-Dawley Rats. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTPRDGT94007. PB97-111728.
112. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1997. Final Report on the [Short Term] Reproductive [and Developmental Toxicity] of Dibromoacetonitrile (CAS #3252-43-5) Administered in Diet [Drinking Water] to Sprague-Dawley Rats. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTPRDGT94014. PB97-143127.
113. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1998a. Short Term Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Study of Bromochloroacetic Acid (CAS No. 5589-96-8) when Administered to Sprague-Dawley Rats in the Drinking Water. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTPRDGT96001. PB98172414.
114. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1998b. Final Report on the Short Term Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Bromodichloromethane (CAS #75-27-4) Administered in the Drinking Water to Sprague-Dawley Rats. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. NTPRDGT94017. PB97-111262.
115. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1998c. Final report on the short term reproductive and developmental toxicity of tribromoacetic acid (CAS No. 75-96-7) administered in drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. NTPRDGT94009. PB98165111.
116. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 2000. Final Report on the Short Term Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Dibromochloroacetic Acid (CAS #5278-95-5) Administered in Drinking Water to Sprague-Dawley Rats. National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC. PB2000103420.
117. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2001. OECD Guideline for the Testing of Chemicals. 414: Prenatal Developmental Toxicity Study. Available at http://www.new.sourceoecd.org/rpsv/periodical/p15_about.htm?jnlissn=1607 310x.
118. Orme J., Taylor D.H., Laurie R.D., Bull R.J. Effects of chlorine dioxide on thyroid function in neonatal rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1985, 15(2):315-322.
119. Padmanabhan R. Etiology, pathogenesis and prevention of neural tube defects. Congenit. Anom. 2006, 46:555-567.
120. Peters, P.W.J., Verhoef, A., de Liefde, A., van Velsen, F.L. van Soolingen, J., de Geus, D., Danse, L.H.J., van Logten, M.J., 1981. Teratogenicity Study of Methyl Bromide Dosed Orally. Submitted by Ethyl Corporation to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic Substances. Fiche No. OTS0516089.
121. Porter C.K., Putnam S.D., Hunting K.L., Riddle M.R. The effect of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid exposure on fetal growth in a Maryland county. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005, 162(4):334-344.
122. Randall, J.L., Christ, S.A., Horton Perez, P., Nolen, G.A., Read, E.J., Smith, M.K., 1991. Developmental effects of 2-bromoacetic acid in Long-Evans rat. Teratology. 43 (5), 454. (also an unpublished manuscript by Randall et al., 1992).
123. Richardson S.D. Drinking water disinfection by-products. The Encyclopedia of Environmental Analysis and Remediation 1998, Vol. 3:1398-1421. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
124. Richardson S.D., Thruston A.D., Caughran T.V., Chen P.H., Collette T.W., Floyd T.L., Schenck K.M., Lykins B.W. Identification of new ozone disinfection by-products in drinking water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33:3368-3377.
125. Richardson S.D., Caughran T.V., Poiger T., Guo Y., Crumley F.G. Application of DNPH derivatization with LC/MS to the identification of polar carbonyl disinfection by-products in drinking water. Ozone Sci. Engin. 2000, 22(6):653-675.
126. Richardson S.D., Thruston A.D., Caughran T.V., Chen P.H., Collette T.W., Schenck K.M., Lykins B.W., Rav-Acha C., Glezer V. Identification of new drinking water disinfection by-products from ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and chlorine. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2000, 123(1):95-102.
127. Richardson S.D., Thruston A.D., Rav-Acha C., Groisman L., Popilevsky I., Glezer V., McKague A.B., Plewa M.J., Wagner E.D. Tribromopyrrole brominated acids, and other disinfection by-products produced by the disinfection of drinking water rich in bromide. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37(17):3782-3793.
128. Richardson S.D., Thruston A.D., Jr Krasner S.W., Weinberg H.S., Miltner R.J., Schenck K.M., Narotsky M.G., McKague A.B., Simmons J.E. Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: comprehensive characterization of water concentrates prepared from chlorinated and ozonated/postchlorinated drinking water. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2008, 71(17):1165-1186.
129. Rogers J.M., Lau C., Andrews J.E., Chernoff N., Thibodeaux J.D., Barbee B.D., Grey B.E. Effect of varying maternal folate status and dietary folate intake on response to diverse developmental toxicants in the rat. Teratol. Soc. Abstr. 2005, 289:314.
130. Roth A.C., Crocker W., Wessendarp T.K., Smith M.K., Gordon D.A. Dose related absorption and distribution of dichloroacetate (DCA) in pregnant Long-Evans rats. Teratology 1991, 43(5):428.
131. Ruddick J.A., Villeneuve D.C., Chu I., Valli V.E. A teratological assessment of four trihalomethanes in the rat. J. Environ. Sci. Health B 1983, 18(3):333-349.
132. Saillenfait A.M., Langonne I., Sabate J.P. Developmental toxicity of trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene and four of their metabolites in rat whole embryo culture. Arch. Toxicol. 1995, 70(2):71-82.
133. Savitz D.A., Andrews K.W., Pastore L.M. Drinking water and pregnancy outcome in central North Carolina: source, amount, and trihalomethane levels. Environ. Health Perspect. 1995, 103(6):592-596.
134. Savitz, D.A., Singer, P.C., Hartmann, K.E., Herring, A.J., Weinberg, H.S., 2005. Drinking Water Disinfection By-products and Pregnancy Outcome. AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, CO. Available at http://www.awwarf.org/research/TopicsandProjects/execSum/PDFReports/9108 8F.pdf.
135. Savitz D.A., Singer P.C., Herring A.H., Hartmann K.E., Weinberg H.W., Makarushka C. Exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and pregnancy loss. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2006, 164(11):1043-1051.
136. Schwetz B.A., Leong B.K., Gehring P.J. Embryo- and fetotoxicity of inhaled chloroform in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1974, 28(3):442-451.
137. Schwetz B.A., Leong K.J., Gehring P.J. The effect of maternally inhaled trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, and methylene chloride on embryonal and fetal development in mice and rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1975, 32(1):84-96.
138. Seed J., Carney E.W., Corley R.A., Crofton K.M., DeSesso J.M., Foster P.M., Kavlock R., Kimmel G., Klaunig J., Meek M.E., Preston R.J., Slikker W., Tabacova S., Williams G.M., Wiltse J., Zoeller R.T., Fenner-Crisp P., Patton D.E. Overview: using mode of action and life stage information to evaluate the human relevance of animal toxicity data. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2005, 35:663-672.
139. Shaw G.M., Ranatunga D., Quach T., Neri E., Correa A., Neutra R.R. Trihalomethane exposures from municipal water supplies and selected congenital malformations. Epidemiology 2003, 14:191-199.
140. Sikov, M.R., Cannon, W.C., Carr, D.B., Miller, R.A., Montgomery, L.F., Phelps, D.W., 1981. Teratologic Assessment of Butylene Oxide, Styrene Oxide and Methyl Bromide. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 81-124. PB81168510.
141. Simmons J.E., Richardson S.D., Speth T., Miltner R.J., Rice G., Schenck K., Teuschler L.K. Development of an research strategy for integrated technology-based toxicology studies on drinking water disinfection byproducts. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110(Supplement 6):1013-1024.
142. Simmons J.E., Teuscher L.K., Gennings C., Speth T.F., Richardson S.D., Miltner R.J., Narotsky M.G., Schenck K.D., Hunter E.S., Hertzberg R.C., Rice G. Component-based and whole-mixture techniques for addressing the toxicity of drinking-water disinfection-byproduct mixtures. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2004, 67:741-754.
143. Simmons J.E., Richardson S.D., Teuschler L.K., Miltner R.J., Speth T.F., Schenck K.M., Hunter E.S., Rice G. Research issues underlying the four-lab study: integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2008, 71(17):1125-1132.
144. Smith M.K., George E.L., Zenjck H., Manson J.M., Stober J.A. Developmental toxicity of halogenated acetonitriles: drinking water by-products of chlorine disinfection. Toxicology 1987, 46(1):83-93.
145. Smith M.K., Randall J.L., Tocco D.R., York R.G., Stober J.A., Read E.J. Teratogenic effects of trichloroacetonitrile in the Long-Evans rat. Teratology 1988, 38(2):113-120.
146. Smith M.K., Randall J.L., Read E.J., Stober J.A. Teratogenic activity of trichloroacetic acid in the rat. Teratology 1989, 40(5):445-451.
147. Smith M.K., Randall J.L., Stober J.A., Read E.J. Developmental toxicity of dichloroacetonitrile: a by-product of drinking water disinfection. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1989, 12(4):765-772.
148. Smith, M.K., Randall, J.L., Read, E.J., Stober, J.E., 1990. Developmental effects of chloroacetic acid in the Long-Evans rat. Teratology. 41 (5), 593. (an unpublished manuscript by Randall et al., 1992).
149. Smith M.K., Christ S.A., Randall J.L., Nolen G.A., Read E.J., Stober J.A. Interaction study of chlorinated acetic acids in pregnant Long-Evans rats. Teratology 1991, 43(5):453-454.
150. Smith M.K., Randall J.L., Read E.F., Stober J.A. Developmental toxicity of dichloroacetate in the rat. Teratology 1992, 46(3):217-223.
151. Smith M.K., Weller E., Chinchilli V., Read E.J., Christ S.A., Randall J.L., Kavlock R.J. Statistical analysis of a developmental toxicity interaction study. Teratology 1992, 45(5):488-489.
152. Sonich-Mullin C., Fielder R., Wiltse J., Baetcke K., Dempsey J., Fenner-Crisp P., Grant D., Hartley M., Knaap A., Kroese D., Mangelsdorf I., Meek E., Rice J.M., Younes M. IPCS conceptual framework for evaluating a mode of action for chemical carcinogenesis. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2001, 34(2):146-152.
153. Stacpoole P.W. The pharmacology of dichloroacetate. Metabolism 1989, 38(11):1124-1144.
154. Suh D.H., Abdel-Rahman M.S., Bull R.J. Effect of chlorine dioxide and its metabolites in drinking water on fetal development in rats. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1983, 3(2):75-79.
155. Swan S.H., Waller K. Disinfection by-products and adverse pregnancy outcomes: what is the agent and how should it be measured?. Epidemiology 1998, 9(5):479-481.
156. Swan S.H., Waller K., Hopkins B., Windham G., Fenster L., Schaefer C., Beutra R.R. A prospective study of spontaneous abortion: Relation to amount and source of drinking water consumed in early pregnancy. Epidemiology 1998, 9(12):126-133.
157. Tardiff R.G., Carson M.L., Ginevan M.E. Updated weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2006, 45(2):185-205.
158. Taylor D.H., Pfohl R.J. Effects of chlorine dioxide on the neurobehavioral development of rats. Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact, and Health Effects 1985, 355-364. Lewis Publications, Chelsea. R.L. Jolley, R.J. Bull, W.P. Davis, S. Katz (Eds.).
159. Teuschler L.K., Simmons J.E. Approaching the toxicity of disinfection by-products in drinking water as a mixtures problem. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2003, 95(6):131-138.
160. Teuschler L.K., Rice G.E., Wilkes C.R., Lipscomb J.C., Power F.W. A feasibility study of cumulative risk assessment methods for drinking water disinfection by-product mixtures. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2004, 67(8-10):755-777.
161. Thompson D.J., Warner S.D., Robinson V.B. Teratology studies on orally administered chloroform in the rat and rabbit. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1974, 29(3):348-357.
162. Toledano M.B., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Best N., Whitaker H., Humbly P., de Hoogh C., Fawell J., Jarup L., Elliott P. Relation of trihalomethane concentrations in public water supplies to stillbirth and birth weight in three water regions in England. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113(2):225-232.
163. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1986. Guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. Fed. Reg. 51(185):34014-34025. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/backgr-d.htm.
164. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1991. Guidelines for Developmental Toxicity Risk Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/600/FR-91/001. Fed. Reg. 56(234):63798-63826. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/backgr-d.htm.
165. Health Effects Test Guidelines OPPTS 870.3700 Prenatal Developmental Toxicity Study 1998, U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC.
166. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2000a. Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/630/R-00/002. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/backgr-d.htm.
167. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2000b. Toxicological Review of Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite (CAS nos. 10049-04-4 and 7757-19-2) in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/635/R-00/007. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html.
168. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2000c. Toxicological Review of Chloral Hydrate (CAS nos. 302-17-0) in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/635/R-00/006. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html.
169. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2001. Toxicological Review of Chloroform (CAS nos. 67-66-3) in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/635/R-01/001. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html.
170. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. Framework for Cumulative Risk Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/630/P-02/001F. Available at http://www.cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=54944.
171. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/630/P-03/001F. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iris/backgr-d.htm.
172. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2006. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule; Final rule. 40 CFR parts 9, 141, and 142. Fed. Reg. 71(2):388-493. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/disinfection/stage2/index.html.
173. U.S. FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). 2000. Guidelines for Developmental Toxicity Studies. Section IV.C.9.b. In: Toxicological Principles for the Safety Assessment of Food Ingredients, Redbook 2000. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Washington, DC. Available at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~redbook/redivc9b.html.
174. Vogel E.W., Nivard M.J. The subtlety of alkylating agents in reactions with biological macromolecules. Mutat. Res. 1994, 305(1):13-32.
175. Waller K., Swan S.H., Delorenze G., Hopkins B. Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology 1998, 9(2):134-140.
176. Waller K., Swan S.H., Windham G.C., Fenster L. Influence of exposure assessment methods on risk estimates in an epidemiologic study of total trihalomethane exposure and spontaneous abortion. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 2001, 11(6):522-531.
177. Ward K.W., Rogers E.H., Hunter E.S.I.I.I. Comparative pathogenesis of haloacetic acid and protein kinase inhibitor embryotoxicity in mouse whole embryo culture. Toxicol. Sci. 2000, 53(1):118-126.
178. Weinberg H. Disinfection byproducts in drinking water: the analytical challenge. Anal. Chem. 1999, 71(23):801A-909A.I I.
179. Weinberg, H.S., Krasner, S.W., Richardson, S.D., Thruston Jr., A.D., 2002. The occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) of health concern in drinking water: Results of a nationwide DBP occurrence study. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA. Publication No. EPA/600/R-02/068. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ATHENS/publications/reports/EPA_600_R02_068.pdf.
180. Withey J.R., Karpinski K. The fetal distribution of some aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons in the rat after vapor phase exposure. Biol. Res. Pregnancy Perinatol. 1985, 6(2):79-88.
181. Withey J.R., Collins B.T., Collins P.B. Effect of vehicle on the pharmacokinetics and uptake of four halogenated hydrocarbons from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1983, 3(5):249-253.
182. Wright J.M., Schwartz J., Dockery D.W. Effect of trihalomethane exposure on fetal development. Occup. Environ. Med. 2003, 60:173-180.
183. Wright J.M., Schwartz J., Dockery D.W. The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112:920-925.
184. Yang C.Y., Xiao Z.P., Ho S.C., Wu T.N., Tsai S.S. Association between trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in Taiwan. Environ. Res. 2007, 104:390-395.