Complications from catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: A systematic review

Critical Pathways in Cardiology

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 76-83

  Maan, Abhishek ^a   Shaikh, Amir Y ^a   Mansour, Moussa ^b   Ruskin, Jeremy N ^b   Heist, E Kevin ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

atrial fibrillation; catheter ablation; complications

Indexed keywords

ENOXAPARIN; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; WARFARIN;

CATHETER ABLATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ESOPHAGUS FISTULA; ESOPHAGUS INJURY; FALSE ANEURYSM; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART TAMPONADE; HEMATOTHORAX; HUMAN; NERVE INJURY; PATHOGENESIS; PHRENIC NERVE; PNEUMOTHORAX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; STROKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THROMBOEMBOLISM; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; VASCULAR ACCESS;

ACCESSORY ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; CATHETER ABLATION; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; HEART RATE; HUMANS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; RECURRENCE; RISK ADJUSTMENT; RISK FACTORS; SECONDARY PREVENTION; TREATMENT FAILURE;

EID: 79959885197     PISSN: 1535282X     EISSN: 15352811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/HPC.0b013e318224b7bd     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Fuster V, Ryden LE, Crinjs HJ, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for management for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines and European society of committee for practice guidelines. Circulation. 2006;114:e257-e354. (Pubitemid 44252297)
2. Go AS, Hylek EM, Phillips KA, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: National implications of rhythm management and stroke prevention: The anticoagulation and risk factors in atrial fibrillation (ATRIA) study. JAMA. 2001;285:2370-2375. (Pubitemid 32424106)
3. Feinberg WM, Blackshear JL, Laupacis A, et al. Prevalence, age distribution and gender of patients with atrial fibrillation. Analysis and implications. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:469-473.
4. Wolf PA, Abott RD, Kannel WB. Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: The Framingham Study. Stroke. 1991;22:983-988.
5. Furberg CD, Psaty BM, Manolio TA, et al. Prevalence of atrial fibrillation in elderly subjects (The Cardiovascular Health Study). Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:236-241. (Pubitemid 24239044)
6. Le Heuzey JY, Paziaud O, Pilot O, et al. Cost of care distribution in atrial fibrillation patients: The COCAF study. Am Heart J. 2004;147:121-126. (Pubitemid 38037407)
7. Stewart S, Murphy N, Walker A, et al. Cost of an emerging epidemic: An economic analysis of atrial fibrillation in UK. Heart. 2004;90:286-292. (Pubitemid 38250721)
8. Crandall MA, Bradley DJ, Packer DL, et al. Contemporary management of atrial fibrillation: Update on anticoagulation and invasive management strategies: Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:643-662.
9. Nathan H, Eliakam M. The junction between the left atrium and the pulmonary veins: An anatomic study of human hearts. Circulation. 1966;34: 412-422.
10. Haissaguerre M, Jais P, Shah DC, et al. Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:659-666. (Pubitemid 28402090)
11. Natale A, Raviele A, Arentz T, et al. Venice Chart International consensus document on atrial fibrillation ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007; 18:560-580. (Pubitemid 46650353)
12. Oral H, Knight BP, Tada H, et al. Pulmonary vein isolation for paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2002;105:1077-1081. (Pubitemid 34212617)
13. Oral H, Knight BP, Ozaydin M, et al. Clinical significance of early recurrences of atrial fibrillation after pulmonary vein isolation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:100-104. (Pubitemid 34701383)
14. Cappato R, Calkins H, Chen SA, et al. Updated worldwide survey on the methods, efficacy and safety of catheter ablation for human atrial fibrillation. Circ Arrythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:32-38.
15. Marrouche NF, Dresing T, Cole C, et al. Circular mapping and ablation of the pulmonary vein for treatment of atrial fibrillation: Impact of different catheter technologies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:464-474. (Pubitemid 34833161)
16. Spragg D, Dalal D, Chhema A, et al. Complications of catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: Incidence and predictors. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19:627-631. (Pubitemid 351832292)
17. Dagres N, Hindricks G, Kottkamp H, et al. Complications of atrial fibrillation ablation in a high volume center in 1000 procedures: Still a cause for concern? J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009;20:1014-1019.
18. Bertaglia E, Zoppo F, Tondo C, et al. Early complications of pulmonary vein catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: A multicenter prospective registry on procedural safety. Heart Rhythm. 2007;10:1272-1273.
19. Chen SA, Tai CT, Hseih MH, et al. Initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from the pulmonary veins: Electrophysiological characteristics, pharmacological responses and effects of radiofrequency ablation. Circulation. 1999;100:1879-1886.
20. Saad EB, Rossillo A, Saad CP, et al. Pulmonary vein stenosis after radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation: Functional characterization, evolution and influence of the ablation strategy. Circulation. 2003;108:3102-3107. (Pubitemid 38031799)
21. Yu WC, Hsu TL, Tai CT, et al. Acquired pulmonary vein stenosis after radiofrequency catheter ablation of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2001;12:887-892.
22. Taylor GW, Kay GN, Zheng X, et al. Pathological effects of extensive radiofrequency energy application in the pulmonary veins in dogs. Circulation. 2000;101:1736-1742. (Pubitemid 30196636)
23. De Piccoli B, Rossillo A, Zanella C, et al. Role of transesophageal echocardiography in evaluating the effect of catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation on anatomy and function of pulmonary veins. Europace. 2008;10:1079-1084.
24. Packer D, Keelan P, Munger T, et al. Clinical presentation investigation and management of pulmonary vein stenosis complicating ablation for atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2005;111:546-554. (Pubitemid 40216481)
25. Purerfellner H, Martinek M. Pulmonary vein stenosis following catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2005;20:484-490. (Pubitemid 41565330)
26. Saad E, Marrouche FN, Saad PC, et al. Pulmonary vein stenosis after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: Emergence of a new clinical syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:634-638.
27. Dill T, Neumann T, Ekinci O, et al. Pulmonary vein diameter reduction after radiofrequency catheter ablation for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation evaluated by contrast enhanced three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2003;107:845-850. (Pubitemid 36241042)
28. Neumann T, Sperzel J, Dill T, et al. Percutaneous pulmonary vein stenting for the treatment of severe stenosis after pulmonary vein isolation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:1180-1188.
29. Arentz T, Jander N, Von Rosenthal J, et al. Incidence of pulmonary vein stenosis 2 years after radiofrequency catheter ablation of refractory atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:963-969. (Pubitemid 36559990)
30. DiBiase L, Fahmy TS, Wazni OM, et al. Pulmonary vein total occlusion following catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: Clinical implications after long term follow up. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:2493-2499. (Pubitemid 44881225)
31. Farah A, Khan F, Machado C. Thrombus formation at the site of radiofrequency catheter ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2000;23:538-540. (Pubitemid 30226928)
32. Cooper JM, Epstein LM. Use of intracardiac echocardiography to guide ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2001;104:3010-3013. (Pubitemid 34014046)
33. Doll N, Borger AM, Fabricus A, et al. Esophageal perforation during left atrial radiofrequency ablation: Is the risk too high? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003;125:836-842. (Pubitemid 36457504)
34. Quintana DS, Cabreraja JA, Climent V, et al. Anatomic relations between the esophagus and left atrial and relevance for ablation of atrial of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2005;112:1400-1405. (Pubitemid 41291764)
35. Han J, Good E, Morady F, et al. Esophageal migration during left atrial catheter ablation. Circulation. 2004;110:e258.
36. Sra J, Krum D, Malloy A, et al. Posterior left atrial-esophageal relationship throughout the cardiac cycle. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2006;16:73-80. (Pubitemid 44924094)
37. Schimdt M, Nolker G, Marschang H, et al. Incidence of esophageal wall injury post pulmonary vein antrum isolation for treatment of patients with atrial fibrillation. Europace. 2008;10:205-209. (Pubitemid 351767714)
38. Martinek M, Bencsik G, Aichinger J, et al. Esophageal damage during radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation: Impact of energy settings, lesion sites and esophageal visualization. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009;20:726-733.
39. Gillinov AM, Pettersson G, Rice TW. Esophageal injury during radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;122: 1239-1240.
40. Scanavacca MI, Avila AD, Parga J, et al. Left atrial esophageal fistula following radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2004;15:960-962. (Pubitemid 39180263)
41. Pappone C, Oral H, Santinelli V, et al. Atrio-esophageal fistula as a complication of percutaneous transcatheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2004;109:2724-2726. (Pubitemid 38737918)
42. Ripley KL, Gage AA, Olsen DB, et al. Time course of esophageal lesions after catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007;18:642-646.
43. Aupperle H, Doll N, Walther T, et al. Effects of energy source and ablation techniques. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;130:1549-1554.
44. Haissaguerre M, Hocini M, Takahashi Y, et al. Impact of catheter ablation of the coronary sinus on parosysmal or persistent atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007;18:378-386. (Pubitemid 46435061)
45. Leite LR, Santos SN, Maia H, et al. Luminal esophageal temperature monitoring with a deflectable esophageal temperature probe and intracardiac echocardiography may reduce esophageal injury during atrial fibrillation ablation procedures-Results of a Pilot study. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2011;4:149-156.
46. Perzanowski C, Teplitsky L, Hranitzky PM, et al. Real-time monitoring of luminal esophageal temperature during left atrial radiofrequency catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: Observations about esophageal heating during ablation at the pulmonary vein ostia and posterior left atrium. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006;17:166-170. (Pubitemid 43344867)
47. Cumming JE, Schweikert RA, Saliba WI, et al. Assessment of temperature, proximity and course of the esophagus during radiofrequency ablation within the left atrium. Circulation. 2005;112:459-464. (Pubitemid 41060784)
48. Cummings JE, Scheikert RA, Saliba WI, et al. Brief communication: Atrial-esophageal fistulas after radiofrequency ablation. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:572-574. (Pubitemid 46768146)
49. Tsuchiya T, Ashikaga K, Susumu N, et al. Atrial fibrillation ablation with esophageal cooling with a cooled water-irrigated intraesophageal balloon: A pilot study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007;18:145-150. (Pubitemid 46130761)
50. Arruda MS. Preclinical In-vivo evaluation of an esophageal protective system: Implications on esophageal thermal injury during AF ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:S16-S16.
51. Berjano EJ, Hornero F. A cooled intraesophageal balloon to prevent thermal injury during endocardial surgical radiofrequency ablation of the left atrium: A finite element study. Phys Med Biol. 2005;50:N269-N279. (Pubitemid 41416999)
52. Biase LD, Dodig M, Saliba W, et al. Capsule endoscopy in examination of esophagus for lesions after radiofrequency catheter ablation: A potential tool to select patients with increased risk of complications. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010;21:839-844.
53. Hsu LF, Jais P, Hocini M, et al. Incidence and prevention of cardiac tamponade complicating ablation for atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2005;28(suppl 1):S106-S109. (Pubitemid 40171095)
54. Eick OJ, Gerritse B, Schumacher B. Popping phenomenon in temperature-Controlled radiofrequency ablation: When and why do they occur? Pacing Clinic Electrophysiol. 2000;23:253-258. (Pubitemid 30108475)
55. Hsu LF, Scavee C, Jais P, et al. Transpericardiacpericardiocentesis: An emergency lifesaving technique for cardiac tamponade. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003;14:1001-1003. (Pubitemid 37115166)
56. Oral H, Chugh A, Ozaydin M, et al. Risk of thromboembolic events after percutaneous left atrial radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2006;114:759-765. (Pubitemid 44268226)
57. Lemola K, Desjardin B, Sneider M, et al. Effect of left atrial circumferential ablation for atrial fibrillation on left atrial transport function. Heart Rhythm. 2005;2:923-928. (Pubitemid 41372277)
58. Bombeli T, Mueller M, Haeberli A. Anticoagulant properties of the vascular endothelium. Thromb Heamost. 1997;77:408-423. (Pubitemid 27121001)
59. Black IW. Spontaneous echo contrast: Where there's smoke there's fire. Echocardiography. 2000;17:373-382. (Pubitemid 30395232)
60. Ren JF, Marchlinski FE, Callans DJ. Left atrial thrombus associated with ablation for atrial fibrillation: Identification with intracardiac echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;10:1861-1867. (Pubitemid 38622527)
61. Merino A, Hauptman P, Badimon L, et al. Echocardiographic 'smoke' is produced by an interaction of erythrocytes and plasma proteins modulated by shear forces. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:1161-1168.
62. Rastegar R, Harnick DJ, Weidmenn P, et al. Spontaneous echo contrast videodensity is flow-related and is dependent on the relative concentrations of fibrinogen and red blood cells. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:603-610. (Pubitemid 36223326)
63. Di Biase L, Burkhardt JD, Mohanty P, et al. Periprocedural stroke and management of major bleeding complications in patients undergoing catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: The impact of periprocedural therapeutic international normalized ratio. Circulation. 2010;121:2550-2556.
64. Mortada ME, Chandrasekaran K, Nangia V, et al. Periprocedural anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19: 362-366. (Pubitemid 351457561)
65. Ren JF, Marchlinski FE, Callans DJ, et al. Increased intensity of anticoagulation may reduce risk of thrombus during atrial fibrillation ablation procedures in patients with echo contrast. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:474-477. (Pubitemid 40632478)
66. Sachet F, Monahan HK, Thomas PS, et al. Phrenic nerve injury after atrial fibrillation catheter ablation: Characterization and outcome in a multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:2498-2503.
67. Linhart M, Bellmann B, Mittmann-Braun E, et al. Comparison of cryoballoon and radiofrequency ablation of pulmonary veins in 40 patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: A case-control study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009;12:1343-1348.
68. Quintana DS, Cabrera JA, Climent V, et al. How close are the phrenic nerves to cardiac structures? Implications for the cardiac interventionists. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:309-313. (Pubitemid 40404598)
69. Haines DE, Watson DD. Tissue heating during radiofrequency catheter ablation: A thermodynamic model and observation in isolated perfused and superfused canine right ventricular free wall. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1989;12:962-976. (Pubitemid 19158807)
70. Bunch TJ, Bruce GK, Mahapatra S, et al. Mechanisms of phrenic nerve injury during radiofrequency ablation at the pulmonary vein orifice. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005;16:1318-1325.
71. Ge YZ, Shao PZ, Goldberger J, et al. Cellular electrophysiological changes induced in vitro by radiofrequency current: Comparison with electric ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1995;18:323-333.
72. Prudente LA, Moorman JR, Lake D, et al. Femoral vascular complications following catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2009;26:59-64.
73. Kwak JJ, Pak HN, Jang JK, et al. Safety and convenience of continuous warfarin strategy during the peri-procedural period in patients who underwent catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010;21:620-625.
74. Wazni OM, Beheiry S, Fahmy T, et al. Atrial fibrillation ablation in patients with therapeutic international ratio: Comparison of strategies of anticoagulation management in the peri-procedural period. Circulation. 2007;116: 2531-2534. (Pubitemid 350179218)
75. Abhishek F, Heist EK, Barrett C, et al. Effectiveness of a strategy to reduce major vascular complications from catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2011;30:211-215.
76. Iwashima S, Ishikawa T, Ohzeki T. Ultrasound-guided versus landmark-guided femoral vein access in pediatric cardiac catheterization. Pediatr Cardiol. 2008;29:339-342. (Pubitemid 351414856)
77. Prabhu MV, Juneja D, Gopal PB, et al. Ultrasound-guided femoral dialysis access placement: A single-center randomized trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5:235-239.
78. Dudeck O, Teichgraeber U, Podrabsky P, et al. A randomized trial assessing the value of ultrasound -guided puncture of the femoral artery for interventional investigations. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2004;20:363-368. (Pubitemid 39303210)
79. Shapiro M, Cohen HL, Crystal K, et al. Ultrasound-guided compression of femoral artery pseudoaneurysm. J Ultrasound Med. 1992;11:182-183. (Pubitemid 23050471)
80. Chatterjee T, Do DD, Mahler F, et al. Pseudoaneursysm of femoral artery after catheterization: Treatment by a mechanical compression device guide by color Doppler Ultrasound. Heart. 1998;79:502-504. (Pubitemid 28215832)
81. Brophy DP, Sheiman RG, Amatulle P, et al. Iatrogenic femoral pseudoaneurysms: Thrombin Injection after failed US-guided compression. Radiology. 2000;214:278-282. (Pubitemid 30019905)
82. Shah D, Dumonceau JM, Burri H, et al. Acute pyloric spasm and gastric hypomotility: An extracardiac adverse effect of percutaneous radiofrequency ablation for atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:327-330. (Pubitemid 40966864)
83. Steel KE, Gonzalez JR, O'Bryan CL. Severe left atrial edema and heart failure after atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2006;113:e659. (Pubitemid 43739404)
84. Okada T, Yamada Y, Murakami Y, et al. Prevalence and severity of left atrial edema detected by electron beam tomography early after pulmonary vein ablation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1436-1442. (Pubitemid 46482920)
85. Chilukuri K, Henrickson CA, Dalal D, et al. Incidence and outcomes of protamine reactions in patients undergoing catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Interv Card Electrophysiol. 2009;25:175-181.
86. Porsche R, Brenner ZR. Allergy to protamine sulfate. Heart Lung. 1999;28: 418-428.
87. Stewart WJ, McSweeney SM, Kellett MA, et al. Increased risk of severe protamine reactions in NPH insulin dependent diabetics undergoing cardiac catheterization. Circulation. 1984;70:788-792. (Pubitemid 15205442)
88. Vincent GM, Janowksi M, Menlove R. Protamine allergy reactions during cardiac catheterization and cardiac surgery: Risk in patients taking protamine-insulin preparations. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1991;23:164-168.
89. Nybo M, Madsen JS. Serious anaphylactic reactions due to protamine sulfate: A systemic literature review. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008; 103:192-196. (Pubitemid 352019729)
90. Levy JH, Schweiger IM, Zaidan JR, et al. Evaluation of patients at risk for protamine reactions. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1998:200-204.
91. KnechtS, Jais P, Nault I, et al. Radiofrequency puncture of fossa ovalis for resistant trans-septal access. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2008;1:169-174.
92. Mitchell-Heggs L, Lellouche N, Deal L, et al. Trans-septal puncture using minimally invasive echocardiography during atrial fibrillation ablation. Europace. 2010;12:1435-1438.
93. Lakkireddy N, Rangisetty U, Prasad S, et al. Intracardiac echo-guided radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation in patients with atrial septal defect or patent foramen ovale: A feasibility safety and efficacy study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19:1143-1144.
94. Thomas SP, Nunn GR, Nicholson IA, et al. Mechanism, localization and cure of atrial arrhythmia occurring after a new intraoperative endocardial radiofrequency ablation procedure for atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:442-450. (Pubitemid 30125536)
95. Golovchiner G, Mazur A, Kogan A, et al. Atrial flutter after surgical radiofrequency ablation of the left atrium for atrial fibrillation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;79:108-112. (Pubitemid 40037449)
96. Scharf C, Oral H, Chugh A, et al. Acute effects of left atrial radiofrequency ablation on atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2004;15:515-521. (Pubitemid 38621900)
97. Villacastin J, Perez-Castellano N, Moreno J, et al. Left atrial flutter after radiofrequency catheter ablation of focal atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003;14:417-421. (Pubitemid 36529031)
98. Volkmer M, Antz M, Hebe J, et al. Focal atrial tachycardia originating from musculature of the coronary sinus. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2002;13: 68-67.
99. Karch MR, Zrenner B, Deisenhofer I, et al. Freedom from atrial tachyarrhythmias after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: A randomized comparison between two current ablation strategies. Circulation. 2005;111:2875-2880. (Pubitemid 40814179)
100. Liu X, Dong J, Mavrakis HE, et al. Achievement of pulmonary vein isolation in patients undergoing circumferential pulmonary ablation: A randomized comparison between two different isolation approaches. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006;17:1263-1270. (Pubitemid 44808541)
101. Gerstenfeld EP, Marchlinski FE. Mapping and ablation of left atrial tachycardias occurring after atrial fibrillation ablation. Heart Rhythm. 2007; 4(suppl 3):S65-S72.
102. Gerstenfeld EP, Callans DJ, Dixit S, et al. Mechanism of organized left atrial tachycardias after pulmonary vein isolation. Circulation. 2004;110:1351-1357. (Pubitemid 39238012)
103. Chae S, Oral H, Good E, et al. Atrial tachycardias after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation of atrial fibrillation: Mechanisitic insights, results of catheter ablation and risk factors for recurrence. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 50:1781-1787. (Pubitemid 47600587)
104. Chugh A, Oral H, Good E, et al. Catheter ablation of atypical atrial flutter and atrial tachycardia within the coronary sinus after left atrial ablation for atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:83-91. (Pubitemid 40905134)
105. Mesas CE, Pappone C, Lang CE, et al. Left atrial tachycardia after circumferential pulmonary vein isolation for atrial fibrillation: Electroanatomic characterization and treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:1071-1079. (Pubitemid 39165143)
106. Nagakawa H, Yamanashi WS, Pitha JV, et al. Comparison of an in-vivo tissue temperature profile and lesion geometry for radiofrequency ablation with a saline-irrigated electrode versus temperature control in a canine thigh muscle preparation. Circulation. 1995;91:2264-2273.
107. Hwang ES, Pak HN, Park SW, et al. Risks and benefit of an open irrigated tip catheter in intensive radiofrequency catheter ablation in patients with non-paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Circulation J. 2010;74:644-649.
108. Kanj MH, Wazni O, Fahmy T, et al. Pulmonary vein antral isolation using an open irrigation ablation catheter for the treatment of atrial fibrillation: A randomized pilot study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1634-1641. (Pubitemid 46551624)
109. Thomas SP, Aggarwal G, Boyd AC, et al. A comparison of open irrigated and non-irrigated tip catheter ablation for pulmonary vein isolation. Europace. 2004;6:330-335. (Pubitemid 38937147)
110. Macle L, Jais P, Weerasooriya R, et al. Irrigated -tip catheter ablation of pulmonary veins for treatment of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2002;13:1067-1073. (Pubitemid 35379603)
111. Defaye P, Kane A, Chaib A, et al. Efficacy and safety of pulmonary vein isolation by cryoablation for the treatment of paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation. Europace. In press.
112. Van Belle Y, Janse P, Rivero-Ayerza MJ, et al. Pulmonary vein isolation using an occluding cryoablation for circumferential ablation: Feasibility, complications and short-term outcome. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2231-2237. (Pubitemid 47428935)
113. Klein G, Oswald H, Gardiwal A, et al. Efficacy of pulmonary vein isolation by cryoablation in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5:802-806.
114. Neumann T, Vogt J, Schumacher B, et al. Circumferential pulmonary vein isolation with the cryoballoon technique results from a prospective 3-center study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:273-278. (Pubitemid 351973309)
115. Malmborg H, Lonnerholm S, Blomstrom-Lundquivst C. Acute and clinical effects of cryoballoon pulmonary vein isolation in patients with symptomatic paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation. Europace. 2008;10:1277-1280.
116. Ahmed H, Neuzil P, d'Avila A, et al. The esophageal effects of cryoenergy during cryoablation for atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm. 2009;6:962-969.
117. Avitall B, Urboniene D, Rozmus G, et al. New cryotechnology for electric isolation of the pulmonary veins. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003;14: 281-286. (Pubitemid 36444470)
118. Chiercha GB, Capulzini L, Droogmans S, et al. Pericardial effusion in atrial fibrillation ablation: A comparison between cryoablation and radiofrequency pulmonary vein isolation. Europace. 2010;12:337-341.
119. Neumann T, Kuniss M, Conradi G, et al. MEDAFI -trial (Micro-embolization during ablation of atrial fibrillation): Comparison of pulmonary vein isolation using cryoballoon technique vs. radiofrequency energy. Europace. 2011;13:37-44.