The dopamine dilemma-Part II: Could stimulants cause tolerance, dependence, and paradoxical decompensation?

Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 47-53

  Yanofski, Jason ^a,b  

^a (MTBI) Clinic at US Army Garrison   (Germany)

^b San Quentin State Prison   (United States)

Author keywords

ADHD; Children; Dependence; Dopamine; Psychopharmacology; Stimulants; Tolerance

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; METHYLPHENIDATE; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT;

ADAPTATION; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; DISEASE COURSE; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERANCE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; HUMAN; LONG TERM CARE; PARADOXICAL DECOMPENSATION; PARADOXICAL DRUG REACTION; RECEPTOR DENSITY; REGULATORY MECHANISM; RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME; REWARD; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 79959332770     PISSN: 21588333     EISSN: 21588341     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. Nair J, Ehimare U, Beitman BD, et al.Clinical review: Evidence-based diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in children. Mo Med. 2006;103(6): 617-621.
2. Rappley M. Attention deficithyperactivity disorder. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2.
3. Olfson M, Gameroff M, Marcus S, Jensen P. National trends in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:1071-1077.
4. Zuvekas SH, Vitiello B, Norquist GS. Recent trends in stimulant medication use among US children. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(4):579-585.
5. Goodwin R, Gould MS, Blanco C, Olfson M. Prescription of psychotropic medications to youths in office-base practice. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(8):1081-1087.
6. Zito JM, Safer DJ, dosReis S, et al.Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers. JAMA. 2000;23;283(8):1025-1030.
7. Zhang H, Du M, Zhuang S. Impact of long-term treatment of methylphenidate on height and weight of school age children with ADHD. Neuropediatrics. 2010;41(2):55-59.
8. Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B. Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder: Report of 3 new cases and review of the literature. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2010;33(4):204-206.
9. Rösler M, Casas M, Konofal E, Buitelaar J. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010;11(5):684-698.
10. Ratzoni G, Gothelf D, Brand-Gothelf A, et al.Weight gain associated with olanzapine and risperidone in adolescent patients: A comparative prospective study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41(3):337-343.
11. Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, et al.3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(8):989-1002.
12. Adriaensen H, Vissers K, Noorduin H, Meert T. Opioid tolerance and dependence: An inevitable consequence of chronic treatment? Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2003;54(1):37-47.
13. Kosten TR, George TP. The neurobiology of opioid dependence: Implications for treatment. Sci Pract Perspect. 2002;1:13-20.
14. Fava GA, Offidani E. The mechanisms of tolerance in antidepressant action. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010 Aug 19.
15. Pierce RC, Kumaresan V. The mesolimbic dopamine system: The final common pathway for the reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(2):215-238.
16. Kenny P, Markou A. Nicotine selfadministration acutely activates brain reward systems and induces a long-lasting increase in reward sensitivity. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006; 31:1203-1211.
17. Ikemoto S. Brain reward circuitry beyond the mesolimbic dopamine system: A neurobiological theory. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010 Feb 10.
18. Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet. 2007;369(9566):1047-1053.
19. Zhang D, Wang X, Xiang X, et al.The dopamine D(2) partial agonist and antagonist terguride decreases heroin self-administration on fixedand progressive-ratio schedules. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2010 Aug 9.
20. Yoshimoto K, McBride WJ, Lumeng L, Li TK. Alcohol stimulates the release of dopamine and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens. Alcohol. 1992;9(1):17-22.
21. Keller HH, Schaffner R, Haefely W. Interaction of benzodiazepines with neuroleptics at central dopamine neurons. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1976;294(1):1-7.
22. Lavielle S, Tassin, JP, Thierry AM, et al.Blockade by benzodiazepines of the selective high increase in dopamine turnover induced by stress in mesocortical dopaminergic neurons of the rat. Brain Res. 1979;168(3):585-594.
23. Kitai ST, Sugimori M, Kocsis JD. Excitatory nature of dopamine in the nigro-caudate pathway. Exp Brain Res. 1976;24(4):351-363.
24. Fehr C, Yakushev I, Hohmann N, et al.Association of low striatal dopamine D2 receptor availability With Nicotine Dependence Similar to that seen with other drugs of abuse. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165:507-514
25. Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Variables that affect the clinical use and abuse of methylphenidate in the treatment of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(11):1909-1918.
26. Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, et al.Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: Prevalence, motives, and routes of administration. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26(10):1501-1510.
27. Bright GM. Abuse of medications employed for the treatment of ADHD: Results from a large-scale community survey. Medscape J Med. 2008;10(5):111.
28. Yanofski J. The dopamine dilemma: Using stimulants and antipsychotics concurrently. Psychiatry (Edgemont). 2010;7(6):18-23.
29. Grace AA. Phasic versus tonic dopamine release and the modulation of dopamine system responsivity: A hypothesis for the etiology of schizophrenia. Neuroscience. 1991;41(1):1-24.
30. Braun AR, Laruelle M, Mouradian MM. Interactions between D1 and D2 dopamine receptor family agonists and antagonists: The effects of chronic exposure on behavior and receptor binding in rats and their clinical implications. J Neural Transm. 1997;104(4-5):341-362.
31. Gianutsos G, Drawbaugh RB, Hynes MD, Lal H. Behavioral evidence for dopaminergic supersensitivity after chronic haloperidol. Life Sci. 1974;14:887-898.
32. Samaha AN, Seeman P, Stewart J, et al."Breakthrough" dopamine supersensitivity during ongoing antipsychotic treatment leads to treatment failure over time. J Neurosci. 2007;27(11):2979-2986.
33. Breggin PR. Questioning the treatment for ADHD. Science. 2001; 291:595.
34. Furman LM. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Does new research support old concepts? J Child Neurol. 2008; 23(7):775-784.
35. Adriani W, Boyer F, Gioiosa L, et al.Increased impulsive behavior and risk proneness following lentivirusmediated dopamine transporter over-expression in rats' nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience. 2008;159(1):47-58.
36. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC. Differential effect of environmental adversity by gender: Rutter's index of adversity in a group of boys and girls with and without ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(9):1556.
37. Solanto MV. Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A review and integration. Behav Brain Res. 1998;94(1):127-152.
38. Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, et al.Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:1325-1331.
39. Botly LC, Burton CL, Rizos Z, Fletcher PJ. Characterization of methylphenidate self-adminstration and reinstatement in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008;199(1):55-66.
40. Berridge CW, Devilbiss DM, Andrzejewski ME, et al.Methylphenidate preferentially increases catecholamine neurotransmission within the prefrontal cortex at low doses that enhance cognitive function. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60(10):1111-1120.
41. Moore KE. The actions of amphetamine on neurotransmitters: A brief review. Biol Psychiatry. 1977;12(3):451-462.
42. Jones S, Kornblum JL, Kauer JA. Amphetamine blocks long-term synaptic depression in the ventral tegmental area. J Neurosci. 2000;20(15):5575-5580.
43. Ross DC, Fischehoff J, Davenport B. Treatment of ADHD when tolerance to methylphenidate develops. Psychiatr Serv. 2002;53(1):102.
44. Swanson J, Gupta S, Guinta D, et al.Acute tolerance to methylphenidate in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1999;66:295-305.
45. Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, et al.Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review. Psychiatr Hung. 2008;23(5):324-335.
46. Schimmelmann BG, Friedel S, Nguyen TT, et al.Exploring the genetic link between RLS and ADHD. J Psychiatr Res. 2009;43(10):941-945.
47. Garcia-Borreguero D. Augmentation: Understanding a key feature of RLS. Sleep Med. 2004;5(1):5-6.
48. Hollister LE, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Rickels K, et al.Clinical uses of benzodiazepines. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1993;13(Suppl 1):1S-169S.
49. Schweizer E, Rickels K, Weiss S, Zavodnick S. Maintenance drug treatment of panic disorder. I: Results of a prospective, placebocontrolled comparison of alprazolam and imipramine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:51-60.
50. Morin CM, Belanger L, Bastien C, Vallieres A. Long-term outcome after discontinuation of benzodiazepines for insomnia: A survival analysis of relapse. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:1-14.
51. Poyares D, Guilleminault C, Ohayon C, Tufik S. Chronic benzodiazepine usage and withdrawal in insomnia patients. J Psychiatr Res. 2004;38:327-334.
52. Ashton H. Benzodiazepine withdrawal: Outcome in 50 patients. Br J Addict. 1987;83:665-671.
53. Holtzman SG, Mante S, Minneman KP. Role of adenosine receptors in caffeine tolerance. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1991;256(1):62-68.
54. Adler LA. Clinical presentations of adult patients with ADHD. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65 Suppl 3:8-11.
55. Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(7):894-921.
56. Carlson GA, Kelly KL. Stimulant rebound: How common is it and what does it mean? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2003;13(2):137-142.
57. Buitelaar J, Medori R. Treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beyond symptom control alone in children and adolescents: A review of the potential benefits of long-acting stimulants. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;19(4):325-340.
58. Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals: Implications for problems of longterm use and abuse. Psychopharmacology. 1997;134:1-37.
59. Howland RH. Medication holidays. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2009;47(9):15-18.
60. Martins S, Tramontina S, Polanczyk G, et al.Weekend holidays during methylphenidate use in ADHD children: A randomized clinical trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2004;14(2):195-206.
61. Howland RH. Potential adverse effects of discontinuing psychotropic drugs. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2010;48(9):11-14.
62. Pataki CS, Feinberg DT, McGough JJ. New drugs for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2004;9(2):293-302.
63. Garnock-Jones KP, Keating GM. Spotlight on atomoxetine in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. CNS Drugs. 2010;24(1):85-88.
64. Safren SA, Sprich S, Mimiaga MJ, et al.Cognitive behavioral therapy vs relaxation with educational support for medication- treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;304(8):875-880.
65. Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B. The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: Psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Psychopharmacol. 2006;20(5):602-610.
66. Wigal SB, Gupta S, Greenhill L, et al.Pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate in preschoolers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17(2):153-164.