What is expected from the pathologist in the diagnosis of viral hepatitis?

Virchows Archiv

Volumn 458, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 377-392

  Denk, Helmut ^a  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

Author keywords

Clinical relevance; Liver biopsy; Review; Viral hepatitis

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON;

CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DELTA AGENT HEPATITIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; HEPATITIS VIRUS; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; LIVER BIOPSY; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER GRAFT; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MIXED INFECTION; MORPHOLOGY; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOLOGIST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VIRUS HEPATITIS;

BIOPSY; HEPATITIS, VIRAL, HUMAN; HUMANS; PATHOLOGY; PHYSICIANS;

EID: 79956227590     PISSN: 09456317     EISSN: 14322307     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00428-011-1057-2     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Desmet VJ (2003) Liver tissue examination. J Hepatol 39:543-549
2. Rockey DC, Caldwell SH, Goodman ZD et al (2009) Liver biopsy. Hepatology 49:1017-1044
3. Dienstag JL (2002) The role of liver biopsy in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 36:152-160
4. Lefkowitch JH (2007) Liver biopsy assessment in chronic hepatitis. Arch Med Res 38:634-643
5. Gebo KA, Herlong F, Torbenson MS et al (2002) Role of liver biopsy in management of chronic hepatitis C: a systematic review. Hepatology 36:161-172
6. Brunt EM (2000) Grading and staging the histopathological lesions of chronic hepatitis: the Knodell histology activity index and beyond. Hepatology 31:241-246
7. Ishak KG (2000) Pathologic features of chronic hepatitis. A review and update. Am J Clin Pathol 113:40-55
8. Scheuer PJ, Lefkowitch JH (2005) Liver biopsy interpretation, 7th edn. WB Saunders, New York
9. Huang SN, Chen TC, Tsai SL et al (1997) Histopathology and pathobiology of hepatotropic virus-induced liver injury. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 12(Suppl):195-217
10. Ichai P, Samuel D (2008) Etiology and prognosis of fulminant hepatitis in adults. Liver Transplant 14:67-79
11. Boyer JL, Klatskin G (1970) Pattern of necrosis in acute viral hepatitis. N Engl J Med 283:1063-1071
12. Theise ND, Bodenheiner HC Jr, Ferrell LD (2007) Acute and chronic viral hepatitis. In: Burt AD, Portmann BC, Ferrell LD (eds) MacSween's pathology of the liver, 5th edn. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 399-441
13. Vyberg M (1993) The hepatitis-associated bile duct lesion. Liver 13:289-301
14. Kobayashi K, Hashimoto E, Ludwig J (1993) Liver biopsy features of acute hepatitis C compared with hepatitis A, B, and non-A, non-B, non-C. Liver 13:69-73 (Pubitemid 23284304)
15. Hoofnagle JH (2002) Course and outcome of hepatitis C. Hepatology 36:21-29
16. Missiha SB, Ostrowski M, Heathcote EJ (2008) Disease progression in chronic hepatitis C: modifiable and nonmodifiable factors. Gastroenterology 134:1699-1714 (Pubitemid 351615412)
17. Gordon FD, Pomfret EA, Pomposelli JJ et al (2004) Severe steatosis as the initial histologic manifestation of recurrent hepatitis C genotype 3. Hum Pathol 35:636-63848
18. Karayiannis P (1998) Hepatitis D virus. Rev Med Virol 8:13-24
19. Lefkowitch JH, Goldstein H, Yatto R et al (1987) Cytopathic liver injury in acute delta virus hepatitis. Gastroenterology 92:1262-1266 (Pubitemid 17055917)
20. Benjaminov FS, Heathcote J (2004) Liver disease in pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 99:2479-2488 (Pubitemid 40039381)
21. Navaneethan U, Mohajer MA, Shata MT (2008) Hepatitis E and pregnancy: understanding the pathogenesis. Liver Int 28:1190-1199
22. Kamar N, Selves J, Mansury JM et al (2008) Hepatitis E: does it cause chronic hepatitis? Hepatology 48:1328-1330
23. Hübscher SG (1998) Histological grading and staging in chronic hepatitis: clinical applications and problems. J Hepatol 29:1015-1022
24. Dries V, Odenthal M, Schirmacher P et al (2001) Liver biopsy in chronic hepatitis C. Histopathology, molecular diagnostic analysis, and implications for therapeutic management. Pathologe 22:362-368
25. Roskams T, Libbrecht L, Desmet VJ (2003) Progenitor cells in diseased human liver. Semin Liver Dis 23:385-396 (Pubitemid 38018764)
26. Liaw YF, Yang SS, Chen TJ et al (1985) Acute exacerbation in hepatitis B e antigen positive chronic type B hepatitis. J Hepatol 1:227-233
27. Koukoulis GK (2001) Chronic hepatitis C: grading, staging, and searching for reliable predictors of outcome. Hum Pathol 32:899-903
28. Thein HH, Yi Q, Dore GJ et al (2008) Estimation of stagespecific fibrosis progression rates in chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. Hepatology 48:418-431
29. Poynard T, Ratziu V, Charlotte F et al (2001) Rates and risk factors of liver fibrosis progression in patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol 34:730-739 (Pubitemid 32488789)
30. Goodman ZD(2007)Grading and staging systems for inflammation and fibrosis in chronic liver diseases. J Hepatol 47:598-607
31. Alonso-Marti C, Moreno A, Barat A et al (1990) Co-existence of hepatocyte ground-glass inclusions from several causes. Histopathol 16:304-307 (Pubitemid 20113534)
32. Naoumov NV, Eddleston AL (1994) Host immune response and variations in the virus genome: pathogenesis of liver damage caused by hepatitis B virus. Gut 35:1013-1017 (Pubitemid 24244249)
33. Baumert TF, Thimme R, von Weizsäcker F (2007) Pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 13:82-90 (Pubitemid 46165465)
34. Naoumov NV, Schneider R, Grötzinger T et al (1992) Precore mutant hepatitis B virus infection and liver disease. Gastroenterology 102:538-543
35. Blum HE, Moradpour D, Weizsäcker F et al (1997) Hepatitis-B- Virusmutanten - Klinische Bedeutung. Z Gastroenterol 35:347-355 (Pubitemid 27259244)
36. Park YN, Han KH, Kim KS et al (1999) Cytoplasmic expression of hepatitis B core antigen in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: role of precore stop mutants. Liver 19:199-205 (Pubitemid 29261586)
37. Lok ASF, McMahon BJ (2001) Chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 34:1225-1241 (Pubitemid 33096596)
38. Chen TJ, Liaw YF (1988) The prognostic significance of bridging hepatic necrosis in chronic type B hepatitis: a histopathologic study. Liver 8:10-16
39. Cooksley WGE, Bradbear RA, Robinson W et al (1986) The prognosis of chronic active hepatitis without cirrhosis in relation to bridging necrosis. Hepatology 6:345-348 (Pubitemid 16086616)
40. Villari D, Raimondo G, Brancatelli S et al (1991) Histological features in liver biopsy specimens of patients with acute reactivation of chronic type B hepatitis. Histopathol 18:73-77
41. Harada K, Mihato H, Hiramatsu K et al (1998) Epithelioid cell granulomas in chronic hepatitis C: immunohistochemical character and histologic marker of favourable response to interferon- α therapy. Histopathol 33:216-221 (Pubitemid 28430510)
42. Mihm S, Fayyazi A, Hartmann H et al (1997) Analysis of histopathological manifestations of chronic hepatitis C virus infection with respect to virus genotype. Hepatology 25:735-739 (Pubitemid 27106462)
43. Rubbia-Brandt L, Leandro G, Spahr L (2001) Liver steatosis in chronic hepatitis C: a morphological sign suggesting infection with HCV genotype 3. Histopathology 39:119-124 (Pubitemid 34225037)
44. Younossi ZM, McCullough AJ (2009) Metabolic syndrome, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatitis C virus: impact on disease progression and treatment response. Liver Int 29:3-12
45. Bedossa P, Moucari R, Chelbi E et al (2007) Evidence for a role of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in hepatitis C: a prospective study. Hepatology 46:380-387 (Pubitemid 47344772)
46. Serfaty L, Capeau J (2009) Hepatitis C, insulin resistance and diabetes: clinical and pathogenic data. Liver Int 29:13-25
47. Negro F, Sanyal AJ (2009) Hepatitis C virus, steatosis and lipid abnormalities: clinical and pathogenic data. Liver Int 29:26-37
48. Kumar D, Farrell GC, Fung C et al (2002) Hepatitis C virus genotype 3 is cytopathic to hepatocytes: reversal of hepatic steatosis after sustained therapeutic response. Hepatology 36:1266-1272 (Pubitemid 35253445)
49. Korenaga M, Wang T, Li Y et al (2005) Hepatitis C virus core protein inhibits mitochondrial electron transport and increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. J Biol Chem 280:37481-37488 (Pubitemid 41642356)
50. Sanyal AJ (2005) Review article: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatitis C - risk factors and clinical implications. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 22(Suppl 2):48-51
51. Fartoux L, Charzouillères O, Wendum D et al (2005) Impact of steatosis on progression of fibrosis in patients with mild hepatitis C. Hepatology 41:82-87 (Pubitemid 40066385)
52. Ohata K, Hamasaki K, Toriyama K et al (2003) Hepatic steatosis is a risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Cancer 97:3036-3043 (Pubitemid 36676258)
53. Bruno S, Silini E, Crosignani A et al (1997) Hepatitis C virus genotypes and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: a prospective study. Hepatology 25:754-758 (Pubitemid 27106466)
54. Moriya K, Fujie H, Shintani Y et al (1998) The core protein of hepatitis C virus induces hepatocellular carcinoma in transgenic mice. Nat Med 4(9):1065-1067 (Pubitemid 28417341)
55. Lai MM (2002) Hepatitis C virus proteins: direct link to hepatic oxidative stress, steatosis, carcinogenesis and more. Gastroenterology 122(2):568-571
56. Haque S, Chandra B, Gerber MA et al (1996) Iron overload in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a clinicopathologic study. Hum Pathol 27:1277-1281 (Pubitemid 26415319)
57. Desai TK, Jamil LH, Balasubramaniam M et al (2008) Phlebotomy improves therapeutic response to interferon in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a metaanalysis of six prospective randomized controlled trials. Dig Dis Sci 53:815-822 (Pubitemid 351317098)
58. Miura K, Taura K, Kodama Y et al (2008) Hepatitis C virus-induced oxidative stress suppresses hepcidin expression through increased histone deacetylase activity. Hepatology 48:1420-1429
59. Chen DS (1993) Natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: new light on an old story. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 8:470-475
60. Naoumov NV, Portmann BC, Tedder RS et al (1990) Detection of hepatitis B virus antigens in liver tissue. A relation to viral replication and histology in chronic hepatitis B infection. Gastroenterology 99(4):1248-1253
61. Chu CM, Liaw YF (1995) Membrane staining for hepatitis B surface antigen on hepatocytes: a sensitive and specific marker of active viral replication in hepatitis B. J Clin Pathol 48:470-473
62. Chu CM, Liaw YF (1987) Intrahepatic distribution of hepatitis B surface and core antigens in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Gastroenterology 92:220-225
63. Davies SE, Portmann BC, O'Grady JG et al (1991) Hepatic histological findings after transplantation for chronic hepatitis B virus infection, including a unique pattern of fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis. Hepatology 13:150-157
64. Marinos G, Rossol S, Carucci P et al (2000) Immunopathogenesis of hepatitis B recurrence after liver transplantation. Transplantation 69(4):559-568 (Pubitemid 30129590)
65. Kawai K, Horiike N, Michitaka K et al (2003) The effects of hepatitis B virus core promoter mutations on hepatitis B core antigen distribution in hepatocytes as detected by laser-assisted microdissection. J Hepatol 38:635-641 (Pubitemid 36560649)
66. Fujiwara K, Tanaka Y, Paulon E et al (2005) Novel type of hepatitis B virus mutation: replacement mutation involving a hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 binding site tandem repeat in chronic hepatitis B virus genotype E. J Virol 79:14404-14410 (Pubitemid 41552737)
67. Shiha GE, Khaled RZ, Abdulla AF et al (2005) Immunohistochemical identification of HCV target antigen in paraffin-embedded liver tissue: reproducibility and staining patterns. Liver Internat 25:254-260
68. Guerrero RB, Batts KP, Brandhagen DJ et al (1997) Effects of formalin fixation and prolonged block storage on detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in liver tissue. Diagn Mol Pathol 6:277-28149
69. Bean P (2002) Latest discoveries on the infection and coinfection with heptatitis D virus. Am Clin Lab 21:25-27
70. Guido M, Swan NT, Fattovich G et al (1999) Intrahepatic expression of hepatitis B virus antigens: effect of hepatitis C virus infection. Mod Pathol 12:599-603 (Pubitemid 29279713)
71. Blackard JT, Sherman KE (2008) HCV/HIV co-infection: time to re-evaluate the role of HIV in the liver. J Viral Hepat 15:323-330 (Pubitemid 351473633)
72. Regev A, Berho M, Jeffers LJ et al (2002) Sampling error and intraobserver variation in liver biopsy in patients with chronic HCV infection. Am J Gastroenterol 97:2614-2618
73. Demetris AJ, Ruppert K (2003) Pathologist's perspective on liver needle biopsy size. J Hepatol 39:275-277 (Pubitemid 36920566)
74. Colloredo G, Guido M, Sonzogni A et al (2003) Impact of liver biopsy size on histological evaluation of chronic viral hepatitis: the smaller the sample, the milder the disease. J Hepatol 39:275-277
75. Shiano TD, Azeem S, Bodia CA et al (2005) Importance of specimen size in accurate needle liver biopsy evaluation of patients with chronic hepatitis C. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 3:930-935 (Pubitemid 41219298)
76. Skripenova S, Trainer T, Krawitt E et al (2007) Variability of grade and stage in simultaneous paired liver biopsies in hepatitis C. J Clin Pathol 60:321-324 (Pubitemid 46447752)
77. Scheuer PJ (2003) Liver biopsy size matters in chronic hepatitis: bigger is better. Hepatology 38:1356-1358
78. Shiano TD, Azeem S, Bodian CA et al (2005) Importance of specimen size in accurate needle liver biopsy evaluation of patients with chronic hepatitis C. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 3:930-935 (Pubitemid 41219298)
79. Ishak K, Baptista A, Bianchi L et al (1995) Histological grading and staging of chronic hepatitis. J Hepatol 22:696-699
80. Bedossa P, Dargere D, Paradis V (2003) Sampling variability of liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 38:1449-1457 (Pubitemid 37466971)
81. Bedossa P, and The METAVIR cooperative study group (1996) An algorithm for the grading of activity in chronic hepatitis. Hepatology 24:289-293
82. Schirmacher P, Fleig WE, Tannapfel A et al (2004) Bioptische Diagnostik der chronischen Hepatitis. Pathologe 25:338-348
83. Goodman ZD, Becker RL, Pockros PJ et al (2007) Progression of fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C: evaluation by morphometric image analysis. Hepatology 45:886-894 (Pubitemid 46631557)
84. Scheuer P (1997) Chronic hepatitis: what is activity and how should it be assessed. Histopathol 30:103-105
85. Batts KP, Ludwig J (1995) Chronic hepatitis. An update on terminology and reporting. Am J Surg Pathol 19:1409-1417
86. Zhu R, Huang H, Zhang H et al (2006) Prognostic analysis in chronic hepatitis B patients: a retrospective study of 216 cases about Scheuer scores, in situ expression of viral antigens and tissue hepatitis B virus DNA levels. Liver Int 26:82-89
87. Knodell RG, Ishak KG, Black WC et al (1981) Formulation and application of a numerical scoring system for assessing histological activity in asymptomatic chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1:431-435 (Pubitemid 12218164)
88. METAVIR cooperative group (1994) Inter- and intra-observer variation in the assessment of liver biopsy of chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 20:15-20
89. Goodman ZD, Ishak KG, Sesterhenn IA (1986) Herpes simplex hepatitis in apparently immunocompetent adults. Am J Clin 85:694-699 (Pubitemid 16088953)
90. Jaques SM, Qureshi F (1992) Herpes simplex virus hepatitis in pregnancy: a clinicopathologic study of three cases. Hum Pathol 23:183-187
91. Markin RS (1994) Manifestations of Epstein-Barr-virus in inflammatory diseases of the liver and liver allografts: an in situ hybridization study. Hepatology 20:899-907
92. Seehofer D, Rayes N, Tullius SG et al (2002) CMV hepatitis after liver transplantation: incidence, clinical course, and longterm follow up. Liver Transplant 8:1138-1146 (Pubitemid 35469875)
93. MacDonald GA, Greenson JK, DelBuono EA et al (1997) Minimicroabscess syndrome in liver transplant patients. Hepatology 26:192-197 (Pubitemid 27280324)
94. Theise ND, Conn M, Thung SN (1993) Localization of cytomegalovirus antigens in liver allografts over time. Hum Pathol 24:103-108 (Pubitemid 23046679)
95. Carmichael GP Jr, Zahradnik JM, Moyer GH et al (1979) Adenovirus hepatitis in an immunosuppressed adult patient. Am J Clin Pathol 71:352-355 (Pubitemid 9188295)
96. Huerre MR, Lan NT, Marianneau P et al (2001) Liver histopathology and biological correlates in five cases of fatal dengue fever in Vietnamese children. Virchow's Arch 438:107-114
97. Vieira WT, Gayotto LC, de Lima CP et al (1983) Histopathology of the human liver in yellow fever with special emphasis on the diagnostic role of the Councilman body. Histopathology 7:195-208 (Pubitemid 13092889)
98. Harrison RF, Davies MH, Goldin RD et al (1993) Recurrent hepatitis B in liver allografts: a distinctive form of rapidly developing cirrhosis. Histopathology 23:21-28 (Pubitemid 23233248)
99. Lau JY, Bain VG, Davies SE et al (1992) High-level expression of hepatitis B viral antigens in fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis. Gastroenterology 102:956-962
100. Gaglio P, Singh S, Degertekin B et al (2008) Impact of the hepatitis B virus genotype on pre- and post-liver transplantation outcomes. Liver Transplant 14:1420-1427
101. Demetris AJ, Eghtesad B, Marcos A et al (2009) Evolution of hepatitis C virus in liver allografts. Liver Transplant 15:35-41
102. Guerrero RB, Batts KB, Burgart LJ et al (2000) Early detection of hepatitis C allograft reinfection after orthotopic liver transplantation: a molecular and histologic study. Mod Pathol 13:229-237 (Pubitemid 30207507)
103. Saxena R, Crawford JM, Navarro VJ et al (2002) Utilization of acidophil bodies in the diagnosis of recurrent hepatitis C infection after orthotopic liver transplantation. Mod Pathol 15:897-903
104. Ercolani G, Grazi GL, Ravaioli M et al (2006) Histological recurrent hepatitis C after liver transplantation: outcome and role of retransplantation. Liver Transplant 12:1104-1111 (Pubitemid 44063785)
105. Hübscher SG, Portmann BC (2007) Transplantation pathology. In: Burt AD, Portmann BC, Ferrell LD (eds) MacSween's pathology of the liver, 5th edn. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 815-879
106. Schluger LK, Sheiner PA, Thung SN et al (1996) Severe recurrent cholestatic hepatitis C following orthotopic liver transplantation. Hepatology 23:971-976 (Pubitemid 26137034)
107. David E, Rahier J, Pucci A et al (1993) Recurrence of hepatitis D (delta) in liver transplants: histopathological aspects. Gastroenterology 104:1122-1128 (Pubitemid 23090766)
108. Libbrecht L, Roskams T (2006) Molecular diagnostic approach to liver tissue as an ancillary tool for liver histopathology. Semin Liver Dis 26:328-336 (Pubitemid 44632924)
109. Geller SA, Pitman MB, Nichols WS (2007) Cellular and molecular diagnostic techniques. In: Burt AD, Portmann BC, Ferrell LD (eds) MacSween's pathology of the liver, 5th edn. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 119-146