Woodland hypothesis for devonian tetrapod evolution

Journal of Geology

Volumn 119, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 235-258

  Retallack, Gregory J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BONE; DEVONIAN; EVOLUTION; FOSSIL RECORD; HYPOTHESIS TESTING; LIMB; MISSISSIPPIAN; PALEOENVIRONMENT; PALEOSOL; SKELETAL REMAINS; TETRAPOD; TRACKWAY; WOODLAND;

APPALACHIANS;

TETRAPODA;

EID: 79955525765     PISSN: 00221376     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/659144     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Ahlberg, P. E.; Clack, J. A.; and Blom, H. 2005. The axial skeleton of the Devonian tetrapod Ichthyostega. Nature 437:137-140.
2. Algeo, T. J.; Berner, R. A.; Maynard, J. B.; and Scheckler, S. E. 1995. Late Devonian oceanic anoxic events and biotic crises: ''rooted'' in the evolution of vascular land plants? GSA Today 5:63-66.
3. Algeo, T. J., and Scheckler, S. E. 1998. Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian; links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. 353:113-130.
4. Allen, G. R.; Midgley, S. H.; and Allen, M. 2002. Field guide to freshwater fishes of Australia. Perth, Western Australian Museum, 394 p.
5. Banks, H. P.; Grierson, J. D.; and Bonamo, P. M. 1985 The flora of the Catskill clastic wedge. In Woodrow, D. L., and Sevon, W. D., eds. The Catskill Delta. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 201:125-141.
6. Barrell, J. 1916. Influence of Silurian-Devonian climates on the rise of air-breathing vertebrates. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 27:387-436.
7. Bergin, M. J. 1964. Bedrock geology of the Penn Yan and Keuka Park quadrangles, New York. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1161G, p. 1-35.
8. Bjerstedt, T. W., and Kammer, T. W. 1988. Genetic stratigraphy and depositional systems of the Upper Devonian-Lower Mississippian Price-Rockwell deltaic complex in the central Appalachians, USA. Sediment. Geol. 54:265-301.
9. Blieck, A.; Clement, G.; Blom, H.; Lelievre, H.; Luksevics, E.; Streel,M.; Thorez, J.; and Young, G. C. 2007. The biostratigraphical and palaeogeographical framework of the earliest diversification of tetrapods (Late Devonian). In Becker, R. T., and Kirchgasser, W. T., eds. Devonian events and correlation. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 278:219-235.
10. Brett, C. E.; Ivany, L. C.; Bartholomew, A. J.; Desantis, M. K., and Baird, G. C. 2009. Devonian ecologicalevolutionary subunits in the Appalachian Basin: a revision and test of persistence and discreteness. In Königshof, P., ed. Devonian change: case studies in palaeogeography and palaeoecology. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 314:7-36.
11. Buggisch, W., and Joachimski, M. M. 2006. Carbon isotope stratigraphy of central and southern Europe. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 240:68-88.
12. Callier, V.; Clack, J. A.; and Ahlberg, P. E. 2009. Contrasting developmental trajectories in the earliest known tetrapod forelimbs. Science 324:364-367.
13. Carroll, R. L. 2009. The rise of amphibians: 365 million years of evolution. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 360 p.
14. Chen, D.-Z., and Tucker, M. 2003. The Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction: insights from high-resolution sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy in China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.193:87-111.
15. Clack, J. A. 1988. New material of Acanthostega from the Devonian of East Greenland. Palaeontology 31: 699-724.
16. Clack, J. A. 2002. Gaining ground: the origin and evolution of tetrapods. Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 369 p.
17. Clack, J. A. 2006. The emergence of early tetrapods. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 232:167-189.
18. Clack, J. A. 2007. Devonian climate change, breathing, and the origin of the tetrapod stem group. Integr. Comp. Biol. 47:510-523.
19. Clack, J. A., and Finney, S. M. 2005. Pederpes finneyae, an articulated tetrapod from the Tournaisian of western Scotland. J. Syst. Palaeontol. 2:311-346.
20. Coates, M. I.; and Clack, J. A. 1995. Romer's gap; tetrapod origins and terrestriality. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Sect. C Sci. Terre Paleontol. Geol. Mineral. 17:373-388.
21. Cox, J. E.; Railsback, L. B.; and Gordon, E. A. 2001. Evidence from Catskill pedogenic carbonates for a rapid Late Devonian decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Northeast Geol. Environ. Sci.23: 91-102.
22. Cressler, W. L. 2006. Plant paleoecology of the Late Devonian Red Hill locality, north-central Pennsylvania, an Archaeopteris-dominated community and early tetrapod site. In Greb, S. F.; DiMichele, W. A.; and Gastaldo, R. A., eds. Wetlands through time. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 399:79-102.
23. Crowder, L. B.; Squires, D. D.; and Rice, J. A. 1997. Nonadditive effects of terrestrial and aquatic predators on juvenile estuarine fish. Ecology 78:1796-1804.
24. Daeschler, E. B. 2000a. Early tetrapod jaws from the Late Devonian of Pennsylvania, USA. J. Paleontol. 74:301-308.
25. Daeschler, E. B.; Cressler, W.; Thomson, K. S.; and Amaral, W. W. 1994. A Devonian tetrapod from North America. Science 265:639-642.
26. Daeschler, E. B.; Shubin, N. H.; and Jenkins, F. A. 2006. A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan. Nature 444:753-757.
27. Darby, S. E. 1999. Effect of riparian vegetation on flow resistance and flood potential. J. Hydraul. Eng. 123: 143-154.
28. Davies, N. S., and Gibling, M. R. 2010. Paleozoic vegetation and the Siluro-Devonian rise of fluvial lateral accretion sets. Geology 38:51-54.
29. Driese, S. G., and Mora, C. L. 1993. Physico-chemical environment of carbonate formation in Devonian vertic palaeosols, central Appalachians, U.S.A. Sedimentology 40:199-216.
30. Driese, S. G.; Mora, C. I.; and Cotter, E. 1993b. Neskopeck Creek paleosol, Mauch Chunk Formation, near Nescopeck, PA. In Driese, S. G., ed. Paleosols, paleoclimate and paleoatmospheric CO2: Paleozoic paleosols of central Pennsylvania. Stud. Geol. Dept. Geol. Sci. Univ. Tenn. 22:91-102.
31. Driese, S. G.; Mora, C. I.; and Elick, J. M. 2000. The paleosol record of increased depth of rooting and changes in pCO2 in the Siluro-Devonian. In Gastaldo, R. A., and Dimichele, W. A., eds. Phanerozoic terrestrial ecosystems. Paleontol. Soc. Spec. Pap. 6:47-61.
32. Edmunds, W. E. 1997. I84-380 roadcut at Cobbs Gap: ''Loyalhanna'' and Pottsville disconformities and their stratigraphic relations. In Inners, J. D., ed. Geology of the Wyoming-Lackawanna Valley and its mountain rim, northeastern Pennsylvania. Guidebook, Ann. Field Conf. Penn. Geol. 62:126-130.
33. Falcon-Lang, H. J.; Benton, M. J.; Braddy, S. J.; and Davies, S. J. 2006. The Pennsylvanian tropical biome reconstructed from the Joggins Formation of Nova Scotia, Canada. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 163:561-576.
34. Falcon-Lang, H. J.; Benton, M. J.; and Stimson, M. 2007. Ecology of early reptiles inferred from Lower Penn sylvanian trackways. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 164:1113-1118.
35. Fastovsky, D.; Driese, S. G.; Strater, K. P.; and Strater, N. H. 1993. Paleosols in Mauch Chunk (Upper Mississippian) near Lavelle, PA. In Driese, S. G., ed. Paleosols, paleoclimate and paleoatmospheric CO2: Paleozoic paleosols of central Pennsylvania. Stud. Geol. Dept. Geol. Sci. Univ. Tenn. 22:80-90.
36. Feunteun, E., and Marion, L. 1994. Assessment of grey heron predation on fish communities: the case of the largest European colony. Hydrobiologia 279-280:327-344.
37. Friedman, G. M., and Chamberlain, J. A. 1995. Archanodon catskillensis (Vanuxem): fresh-water clams from one of the oldest back-swamp fluvial facies (Upper Middle Devonian) Catskill Mountains, New York. Northeast. Geol. Environ. Sci. 17:431-433.
38. Godfrey, S. J. 1989. Postcranial skeletal anatomy of the Carboniferous tetrapod Greererpeton burkemorani Romer 1969. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B323:75-133.
39. Goin, C. J., and Goin, O. B. 1956. Further comments on the origin of the tetrapods. Evolution 10:440-441.
40. Gordon, E. A. 1988. Body and trace fossils from the Middle-Upper Devonian Catskill magnafacies, southeastern New York, U.S.A. In McMillan, N. J.; Embry, A. F.; and Glass, D. F. eds. Devonian of the world (Vol. 1). Can. Soc. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 14:139-156.
41. Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G.; and Smith, A. G. 2004. A geologic time scale 2004. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 589 p.
42. Greenwood, P. H. 1986. The natural history of African lungfishes In Bemis, W. E.; Burggren,W.W.; and Kemp, N. E., eds. The biology and evolution of lungfishes. J. Morphol. 1(suppl.):163-179.
43. Holmes, R.; Carroll, R. L.; and Reisz, R. R. 1998. The first articulated skeleton of Dendrerpeton acadianum (Temnospondyli, Dendrepetonidae) from the lower Pennsylvanian locality of Joggins, Nova Scotia, and a review of its relationships. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 18: 64-79.
44. House, M. R. 2002. Strength, timing, setting and cause of the mid-Palaeozoic extinctions. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 181:5-25.
45. Inger, R. F. 1957. Ecological aspects of the origins of tetrapods. Evolution 11:373-376.
46. Jennings, J. R. 1985. Fossil plants from the Mauch Chunk Formation of Pennsylvania: morphology of Adiantites antiquus. J. Paleontol. 59:1146-1157.
47. Jennings, S.; Greenstreet, P. R.; and Reynolds, J. D. 1999. Structural change in an exploited fish community: a consequence of differential fishing effects on species with contrasting life histories. J. Anim. Ecol. 68:617-627.
48. Joachimski, M. M.; Pancost, R. D.; Freeman, K. H.; Ostertag-Henning, C.; and Buggisch, W. 2002. Carbon isotope geochemistry of the Frasnian-Famennian transition. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 181: 91-109.
49. Johnson, K. G.; and Friedman, G. M. 1969. The Tully clastic correlative (Upper Devonian) of New York State: a model for recognition of alluvial, dune (?), tidal, nearshore (bar and lagoon), and offshore sedimentary environments in a tectonic delta complex. J. Sediment. Petrol. 39:452-485.
50. Kaufmann, B. 2006. Calibrating the Devonian time scale:a synthesis of U-Pb ID-TIMS ages and conodont stratigraphy. Earth Sci. Rev. 76:175-190.
51. Keighley, D. G., and Pickerill, R. K. 1998. Systematic ichnology of the Mabou and Cumberland groups (Carboniferous) of western Cape Breton Island, eastern Canada. Pt. 2. Surface markings. Atl. Geol. 34:83-112.
52. Keighley, D. G.; Calder, J.; Park, A.; Pickerill, R.; and Waldron, J. 2008. Discussion on ecology of earliest reptiles inferred from basal Pennsylvanian trackways. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 165:983-987.
53. Kirchgasser, W. T. 1985. Ammonoid horizons in the Upper Devonian Genesee Formation of New York: legacy of the Genesee, Portage, and Chemung. In Woodrow, D. L., and Sevon, W. D., eds. The Catskill Delta. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 201:224-235.
54. Lebedev, O. 1990. Tulerpeton, l'animal a six droits. Recherche 21:1274-1275.
55. Lebedev, O. A. and Zakharenko, G. V. 2010. Global verterbate-based palaeozoogeographical subdivision for the Givetian-Famennian (Middle-Late Devonian): endemism-cosmopolitanism spectrum as an indicator of interprovincial faunal exchanges. Palaeoworld 19:186-205.
56. Long, J. A., and Gordon, M. S. 2004. The greatest step in vertebrate history, a paleobiological review of the fishtetrapod transition. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 77:700-719.
57. Losovsky, V. R. 2005. Olson's Gap or Olson's Bridge, that is the question. In Lucas, S. G., and Ziegler, K. E., eds. The nonmarine Permian. Bull. N. Mex. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. 30:179-184.
58. Lucas, S. G.; Fillmore, D. L.; and Simpson, E. L. 2010a. Amphibian body impressions from the Mississippian of Pennsylvania, USA. Ichnos 17:172-176.
59. Lucas, S. G. 2010b.The Mississippian tetrapod footprint ichnogenus Palaeosauropus: extramorphological variation and ichnotaxonomy. Ichnos 17:177-186.
60. Luo, Z.-X. 2007. Transformation and diversification in early mammal evolution. Nature 450:1011-1019.
61. Lukševičs, E.; Lebedev, O. A.; and Zakharenko, G. V. 2010. Palaeozoogeographical connections of the Devonian vertebrate communities of the Baltica Province. Pt. I. Eifelian-Givetian. Palaeoworld 19:94-107.
62. Markey, M. J., and Marshall, C. R. 2007. Terrestrial-style feeding in a very early aquatic tetrapod is supported by evidence from experimental analysis of suture morphology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:7134-7138.
63. Markwick, P. J. 1994. ''Equability,'' continentality, and Tertiary ''climate'': the crocodilian perspective. Geology 22:613-616.
64. Marshall, J. E. A.; Astin, T. R.; Brown, J. F.; Mark-Kurik, E.; and Lazauskiene, J. 2007. Recognizing the Kac ̌a ́k Event in the Devonian terrestrial environment and its implications for understanding land-sea interactions. In Becker, R. T., and Kirchgasser,W. T., eds. Devonian events and correlations Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ. 278:133-155.
65. Martin, R. 2004. Missing links. Sudbury, MA, Jones & Bartlett, 303 p.
66. Meyer-Berthaud, B.; Scheckler, S. E.; and Wendt, J. 1999. Archaeopteris is the earliest known modern tree. Nature 398:700-701.
67. Miller, J. H.; Shubin, N.; Daeschler, E. B.; and Downs, J. P. 2007. Stratigraphic context of Tiktaalik rosae (Late Devonian): paleoenvironment of the fish tetrapod transition. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. 39:417.
68. Mintz, J. S.; Driese, S. G.; and White, J. D. 2010. Environmental and ecological variability of Middle Devonian (Givetian) forests in Appalachian Basin paleosols, New York, United States. Palaios 25:85-96.
69. Mora, C. L.; Driese, S. G.; and Colarusso, L. A. 1996. Middle to Late Paleozoic atmospheric CO2 from soil carbonate and organic matter. Science 271:1105-1107.
70. Mora, C. I.; Sheldon, B. T.; Elliot, W. C.; and Driese, S. G. 1998. An oxygen isotope study of illite and calcite in three Appalachian Paleozoic vertic paleosols. J. Sediment. Res. 68:456-464.
71. Niedźwiedzki, G.; Szrek, P.; Narkiewicz, K.; Narkiewicz, M.; and Ahlberg, P. E. 2010. Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Poland. Nature 463:43-48.
72. Opdyke, N. D., and DiVenere, V. J. 2004. The magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Mauch Chunk Formation, Pennsylvania. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:13423-13427.
73. Orton, G. L. 1954. Original adaptive significance of the tetrapod limb. Science 120:1042-1043.
74. Over, D. J. 1997. Conodont biostratigraphy of the Java Formation (Upper Devonian) and the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in western New York State. In Klapper, G.; Murphy, M. A.; and Talent, J. A., eds. Paleozoic sequence stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and biogeography: studies in honor of J. Granville (''Jess'') Johnson. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 321:161-177.
75. Over, D. J.; Hopkins, T. H.; Brill, A.; and Spazian, A. L. 2003. Age of the Middlesex Shale (Upper Devonian, Frasnian) in New York State. Cour. Forschungsinst. Senckenb. 14:217-223.
76. Pool, D. J.; Snedaker, S. C.; and Lugo, A. E. 1977. Structure of mangrove forests in Florida, Puerto Rico, Mexico and Costa Rica. Biotropica 9:195-212.
77. Quinn, T. P.; Wetzel, L.; Bishop, S.; Overberg, K.; and Rogers, D. E. 2001. Influence of breeding habitat on bear predation and age at maturity and sexual dimorphism of sockeye salmon populations. Can. J. Zool. 79:1782-1793.
78. Racki, G.; Joachimski, M. M.; and Morrow, J. R., eds. 2008. A major perturbation of the global carbon budget in the early-middle Frasnian transition (Late Devonian). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 269: 127-204.
79. Retallack, G. J. 1985. Fossil soils as grounds for interpreting the advent of large plants and animals on land. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B309:105-142.
80. Retallack, G. J. 1991. Miocene paleosols and ape habitats in Pakistan and Kenya. New York, Oxford University Press, 346 p.
81. Retallack, G. J. 1994. A pedotype approach to latest Cretaceous and earliest Tertiary Paleosols in eastern Montana. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 106:1377-1397.
82. Retallack, G. J. 1997a. Early forest soils and their role in Devonian global change. Science 276:583-585.
83. Retallack, G. J. 1997b. Dinosaurs and dirt. In Wolberg, D. L.; Stump, E.; and Rosenberg, G. D., eds. Dinofest international. Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 345-359.
84. Retallack, G. J. 1998. Fossil soils and completeness of the rock and fossil record. In Donovan, S. K., and Paul, C. R. C., eds. The adequacy of the fossil record. Chichester, Wiley, p. 131-162.
85. Retallack, G. J. 2001. Soils of the past. Oxford, Blackwell, 600 p.
86. Retallack, G. J. 2005a. Pedogenic carbonate proxies for amount and seasonality of precipitation in paleosols. Geology 33:333-336.
87. Retallack, G. J. 2005b. Permian greenhouse crises. In Lucas, S. G., and Ziegler, K. E., eds. The nonmarine Permian Bull. N. Mex. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. 30:256-269.
88. Retallack, G. J. 2009a. Early Paleozoic pedostratigraphy and global events in Australia. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 56:569-584.
89. Retallack, G. J. 2009b. Greenhouse crises of the past 300 million years. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 121:1441-1455.
90. Retallack, G. J., and Huang, C. 2011. Evolution and ecology of Devonian trees in New York, U.S.A. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 299:110-128.
91. Retallack, G. J.; Hunt, R. R.; and White, T. E. 2009. Devonian palaeosols and tetrapod habitats in Pennsylvania. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 166:1143-1156.
92. Rickard, L. V. 1975. Correlation of the Silurian and Devonian rocks in New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Sci. Serv. Map Chart Ser. 24:1-16.
93. Romer, A. S. 1941. Man and the vertebrates (3rd ed.). Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 405 p.
94. Romer, A. S. 1958. Tetrapod limbs and early tetrapod life Evolution. 12:365-369.
95. Sallan, L. C., and Coates, M. I. 2010. End-Devonian extinction and a bottleneck in the early evolution of modern jawed vertebrates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107:10131-10135.
96. Sarwar, G., and Friedman, G. M. 1995. Post-Devonian sediment cover over New York State: evidence from fluid-inclusion, organic maturation, clay diagenesis and stable isotope studies. Berlin, Springer, 113 p.
97. Schultz, C. H. 1999. The geology of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 888 p.
98. Schweitzer, H.-J. 1999. Die Devonfloren Spitsbergens. Palaeontographica B252: 1-122.
99. Schweitzer, H.-J., and Giesen, P. 2002. Wichtige neuere Pflanzenfunde im Mitteldevon von Wuppertal im Bergischen Land (Westdeutschland). Palaeontographica B262:91-117.
100. Scott, A. C., and Glasspool, I. J. 2006. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentrations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:10861-10895.
101. Sevon, W. D., and Woodrow, D. L. 1985. Middle and Upper Devonian stratigraphy within the Appalachian Basin. In Woodrow, D. L., and Sevon, W. D., eds. The Catskill Delta. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 201:1-7.
102. Shaw, A. B. 1964. Time in stratigraphy. New York, McGraw-Hill, 365 p.
103. Shear, W. A. 2000. Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new trigonotarbid arachnid from the Late Devonian of North America (Chelicerata, Arachnida, Trigonotarbida). J. Paleontol. 74:25-31.
104. Sheldon, N. D., and Retallack, G. J. 2001. Equation for compaction of paleosols due to burial. Geology 29:247-250.
105. Shubin, N. H. 2008. Your inner fish. New York, Vantage, 237 p.
106. Shubin, N. H.; Daeschler, E. B.; and Coates, M. I. 2004. The early evolution of the tetrapod humerus. Science 304:90-93.
107. Smithson, T. R. 1994. Eldeceeon rolfei, a new reptilomorph from the Visean of East Kirkton,West Lothian, Scotland. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. Earth Sci. 84:377-382.
108. Sparling, D. R. 1999. Conodonts from the Prout Dolomite of north-central Ohio and Givetian (upper Middle Devonian) correlation problems. J. Paleontol. 73:892-907.
109. Stein, W. E.; Mannolini, F.; Hernick, L. V., Landing, E.; and Berry, C. M. 2007. Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa. Nature 446:904-907.
110. Storm, L.; Needle, M. D.; Smith, C. J.; Fillmore, D. L.; Szajna, M.; Simpson, E. L.; and Lucas, S. G. 2010. Large vertebrate burrow from the upper Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation, eastern Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 298: 341-347.
111. Szrek, P. 2008. Vertebrates from the Upper Kellwasser Limestone, Frasnian-Famennian boundary beds (Upper Devonian of the Holy Cross Mountains (Poland). J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 28(suppl. 2):150A.
112. Thomson, K. S. 1969. The biology of the lobe-finned fishes. Biol. Rev. 44:91-154.
113. Traverse, A. 2003. Dating the earliest tetrapods: a Catskill palynological problem in Pennsylvania. Cour. Forschungsinst. Senckenb. 241:19-29.
114. Vrazo, M. B.; Benton, M. J.; and Daeschler, E. B. 2007.Tetrapod tracks from the Mauch Chunk Formation (middle to upper Mississippian) of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 156:199-209.
115. Warburton, F. E., and Denman, N. S. 1961. Larval competition and the origin of tetrapods. Evolution 15:96-106.
116. Ward, P. D.; Labandeira, C.; Maurin, M.; and Berner, R. A. 2006. Confirmation of Romer's Gap as a low oxygen interval constraining the timing of initial arthropod and vertebrate terrestrialization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:16818-16822.
117. Weinberg, S. 2000. A fish caught in time: the search for the coelacanth. New York, HarperCollins, 220 p.
118. Wellstead, C. F. 1982. A Lower Carboniferous aistopod amphibian from Scotland. Palaeontology 25:193-208.
119. Wilson, H. M.; Daeschler, E. B.; and Desbiens, S. 2005.New flat-backed Archipolypoda millipedes from the Upper Devonian of North America. J. Paleontol. 79: 737-743.
120. Woodrow, D. L. 1985. Paleogeography, paleoclimate, and sedimentary processes of the Late Devonian Catskill Delta. In Woodrow, D. L., and Sevon, W. D., eds. The Catskill Delta. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 201:51-63.
121. Work, D. M.; Mason, C. E.; and Klapper, G. 2007. The Middle Devonian (Givetian) ammonoid Pharciceras from the New Albany Shale, Kentucky. J. Paleontol. 81:1510-1515.
122. Young, G. C. 2007. Devonian formations, vertebrate faunas and age control on the far south coast of New South Wales and adjacent Victoria. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 54:991-1008.
123. Zhu, M.; Ahlberg, P. E.; Zhao, W.; and Jia, L. 2002. First Devonian tetrapod from Asia. Nature 420:760.
124. Zimmer, C. 1998. At the water's edge. New York, Free Press, 290 p.