Plant paleoecology of the Late Devonian Red Hill locality, north-central Pennsylvania, an Archaeopteris-dominated wetland plant community and early tetrapod site

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America

Volumn 399, Issue , 2006, Pages 79-102

  Cressler III, Walter L ^a  

^a WEST CHESTER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Archaeopteris; Charcoal; Cormose lycopsid; Gillespiea; Gymnosperm; Late devonian; Paleoecology; Rhacophyton; Tetrapod; Wetlands

Indexed keywords

CHARCOAL; ECOSYSTEMS; LAKES; WETLANDS;

ARCHAEOPTERIS; CORMOSE LYCOPSID; GILLESPIEA; GYMNOSPERM; LATE DEVONIAN; PALEOECOLOGY; RHACOPHYTON; TETRAPOD;

PLANTS (BOTANY);

CHARCOAL; DEVONIAN; FAUNA; FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGE; GYMNOSPERM; LANDSCAPE; NICHE PARTITIONING; PALEOECOLOGY; PLANT; PLANT COMMUNITY; SEDIMENTARY SEQUENCE; TETRAPOD; WETLAND;

PENNSYLVANIA; RED HILL; UNITED STATES;

ARCHAEOPTERIS; FILICOPHYTA; GYMNOSPERMAE; LYCOPODIOPSIDA; RHACOPHYTON; TETRAPODA;

EID: 36849083959     PISSN: 00721077     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1130/2006.2399(04)     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Algeo, T.J., and Scheckler, S.E., 1998, Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: Links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events: Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions, ser. B, v. 353, p.113-130.
2. Algeo, T.J., Scheckler, S.E., and Maynard, J.B., 2001, Effects of Middle to Late Devonian spread of vascular land plants on weathering regimes, marine biotas, and global climate, in Gensel, P.G., and Edwards, D., eds. Plants invade the land: Evolutionary and environmental perspectives: New York, Columbia University Press, p. 213-236.
3. Anderson, H.M., Hiller, N., and Gess, R.W., 1995, Archaeopteris (Progymnospermopsida) from the Devonian of southern Africa: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 117, p. 305-320, doi: 10.1006/bojl.1995.0021.
4. Andrews, H.N., and Phillips, T.L., 1968, Rhacophyton from the Upper Devonian of West Virginia: Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 61, p. 37-64.
5. Andrews, H.N., Phillips, T.L., and Radforth, N.W., 1965, Paleobotanical studies in Arctic Canada. I. Archaeopteris from Ellesmere Island: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 43, p. 545-556.
6. Arnold, C.A., 1939, Observations on fossil plants from the Devonian of eastern North America, IV. Plant remains from the Catskill delta deposits of northern Pennsylvania and southern New York: Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, v. 5, p. 271-314.
7. Bambach, R.K., Algeo, T.J., Thorez, J., and Witzke, B.G., 1999, Paleogeography and paleoclimatic implications for expanding Archaeopteris forests: International Botanical Congress, 16th, St. Louis, Missouri, Abstracts, p.13.
8. Banks, H.P., 1980, Floral assemblages in the Siluro-Devonian, in Dilcher, D.L., and Taylor, T.N., Biostratigraphy of fossil plants: Successional and paleoecological analyses: Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, p. 1-24.
9. Bateman, R.M., and Rothwell, G.W., 1990, A reappraisal of the Dinantian floras at Oxroad Bay, East Lothian, Scotland. 1. Floristics and development of whole-plant concepts: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, v. 81, p. 127-159.
10. Beck, C.B., 1960, Connection between Archaeopteris and Callixylon: Science, v. 131, p. 1524-1525.
11. Beck, C.B., 1964, Predominance of Archaeopteris in Upper Devonian flora of western Catskills and adjacent Pennsylvania: Botanical Gazette, v. 125, p. 126-128, doi: 10.1086/336257.
12. Beerbower, R., 1985, Early development of continental ecosystems, in Tiffney, B.H., Geological factors and the evolution of plants: New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, p. 47-91.
13. Berry, C.M., and Edwards, D., 1996, The herbaceous lycophyte Haskinsia Grierson and Banks from the Devonian of western Venezuela, with observations on leaf morphology and fertile specimens: Botanical Society of the Linnean Society, v. 122, p. 103-122, doi: 10.1006/bojl.1996.0053. (Pubitemid 27012103)
14. Brauer, D.F., 1980, Barinophyton citrulliforme (Barinophytales incertae sedis, Barinophytaceae) from the Upper Devonian of Pennsylvania: American Journal of Botany, v. 67, p. 1186-1206.
15. Brauer, D.F., 1981, Heterosporous, barinophytacean plants from the Upper Devonian of North America and a discussion of the possible affinities of the Barinophytaceae: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 33, p. 347-362, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(81)90092-0.
16. Cai Chongyang, 1981, On the occurrence of Archaeopteris in China: Acta Palaeontologica Sinica, v. 20, p. 75-80.
17. Cai Chongyang, 1989, Two Callixylon species from the Upper Devonian of Junggar Basin, Xinjiang: Acta Palaeontologica Sinica, v. 28, p. 571-578.
18. Cai Chongyang, and Wang Yi, 1995, Devonian floras, in Li Xingxue, Zhou Zhiyan, Cai Chongyang, Sun Ge, Ouyang Shu, and Deng Longhua, eds., Fossil floras of China through the geological ages: Guangzhou, China, Guangdong Science and Technology Press, p. 28-77.
19. Cai Chongyang, Wen Yaoguang, and Chen Peiquan, 1987, Archaeopteris fl orula from Upper Devonian of Xinhui County, central Guangdong and its stratigraphical signifi cance: Acta Palaeontologica Sinica, v. 26, p. 55-64. [In Chinese with English summary.]
20. Carluccio, L.M., Hueber, F.M., and Banks, H.P., 1966, Archaeopteris macilenta, anatomy and morphology of its frond: American Journal of Botany, v. 53, p. 719-730.
21. Chaloner, W., and Sheerin, A., 1979, Devonian macrofloras, in House, M.R., Scrutton, C.T., and Bassett, M.G., The Devonian system: London, Palaeontological Association Special Papers in Palaeontology, v. 23, p. 145-161.
22. Chaloner, W., Hill, A.J., and Lacey, W.S., 1977, First Devonian platyspermic seed and its implications for gymnosperm evolution: Nature, v. 265, p. 233-235, doi: 10.1038/265233a0.
23. Cressler, W.L., 2001, Evidence of earliest known wildfires: Palaios, v. 16, p. 171-174.
24. Cressler, W.L., and Pfefferkorn, H.W., 2005, A Late Devonian isoetalean lycopsid, Otzinachsonia beerboweri, gen et sp. nov., from north-central Pennsylvania, USA: American Journal of Botany, v. 92, p. 1131-1140.
25. Daeschler, E.B., Shubin, N.H., Thomson, K.S., and Amaral, W.W., 1994, A Devonian tetrapod from North America: Science, v. 265, p. 639-642.
26. Daeschler, E.B., 1998, Vertebrate fauna from the non-marine facies of the Catskill Formation (Late Devonian) in Pennsylvania [Ph.D. thesis]: Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, 166 p.
27. Daeschler, E.B., 2000a, An early actinopterygian fish from the Catskill Formation (Late Devonian, Famennian) in Pennsylvania, U.S.A: Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, v. 150, p. 181-192.
28. Daeschler, E.B., 2000b, Early tetrapod jaws from the Late Devonian of Pennsylvania, USA: Journal of Paleontology, v. 74, p. 301-308.
29. Daeschler, E.B., Frumes, A.C., and Mullison, C.F., 2003, Groenlandaspidid placoderm fishes from the Late Devonian of North America: Records of the Australian Museum, v. 55, p. 45-60.
30. Diemer, J.A., 1992, Sedimentology and alluvial stratigraphy of the upper Catskill Formation, south-central Pennsylvania: Northeastern Geology, v. 14, p. 121-136.
31. DiMichele, W.A., and Bateman, R.M., 1996, Plant paleoecology and evolutionary inference: Two examples from the Paleozoic: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 90, p. 223-247, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(95)00085-2.
32. DiMichele, W.A., and Hook, R.W., rapporteurs; Beerbower, R., Boy, J.A., Gastaldo, R.A., Hotton III, N., Phillips, T.L., Scheckler, S.E., Shear W.A., and Sues, H.-D., contributors. 1992, Paleozoic terrestrial ecosystems, in Behrensmeyer, A.K., Damuth, J.D., DiMichele, W.A., Potts, R., Sues, H.- D., and Wing, S.L., Terrestrial ecosystems through time: Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 205-325.
33. DiMichele, W.A., and Phillips, T.L., 1996, Clades, ecological amplitudes, and ecomorphs: Phylogenetic effects and persistence of primitive plant communities in the Pennsylvanian wetland tropics: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 127, p. 83-105, doi: 10.1016/S0031-0182(96) 00089-2. (Pubitemid 27052512)
34. Dittrich, H.S., Matten, L.C., and Phillips, T.L., 1983, Anatomy of Rhacophyton ceratangium from the Upper Devonian (Famennian) of West Virginia: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 40, p. 127-147, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(83)90007-6.
35. Driese, S.G., and Mora, C.I., 1993, Physico-chemical environment of pedogenic carbonate formation in Devonian vertic paleosols, central Appalachians, U.S.A.: Sedimentology, v. 40, p. 199-216.
36. Driese, S.G., Mora, C.I., and Elick, J.M., 1997, Morphology and taphonomy of root and stump casts of the earliest trees (Middle to Late Devonian), Pennsylvania and New York, U.S.A.: Palaios, v. 12, p. 524-537.
37. Dudal, R., and Eswaran, H., 1988, Distribution, properties, and classifi cation of vertisols, in Wilding, L.P., and Puentes, R., eds., Vertisols: Their distribution, properties, classifi cation and management, College Station, Texas, Texas A&M University, p. 1-22.
38. Edwards, D., and Fanning, U., 1985, Evolution and environment in the late Silurian-early Devonian: rise of the pteridophytes: Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions, ser. B, v. 309, p. 147-165.
39. Erwin, D.M., and Rothwell, G.W., 1989, Gillespeia randolphensis gen. et sp. nov. (Stauropteridales), from the Upper Devonian of West Virginia: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 67, p. 3063-3077.
40. Ettensohn, F.R., 1985, The Catskill Delta complex and the Acadian orogeny: A model, in Woodrow, D.L., and Sevon, W.D., eds., The Catskill Delta: Geological Society of America Special Paper 201, p. 39-49.
41. Fairon-Demaret, M., 1977, A new lycophyte cone from the Upper Devonian of Belgium: Palaeontographica B, v. 162, p. 51-63.
42. Fairon-Demaret, M., 1986, Some uppermost Devonian megafloras: A stratigraphical review: Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, v. 109, p. 43-48.
43. Fairon-Demaret, M., 1991, The Upper Famennian lycopods from the Dinant Sinclinorium (Belgium): Neues Jahrbuch für Geologischen und Paläontologischen, Abhandlungen, v. 183, p. 87-101.
44. Fairon-Demaret, M., 1996, Dorinnotheca streelii Fairon-Demaret, gen. et sp. nov., a new early seed plant from the upper Famennian of Belgium: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 93, p. 217-233, doi: 10.1016/0034- 6667(95)00127-1. Fairon-Demaret, M., and Scheckler, S.E., 1987, Typifi cation and redescription of Moresnetia zalesskyi Stockmans, 1948, an early seed plant from the Upper Famennian of Belgium: Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Sciences de la Terre, v. 57, p. 183-199.
45. Fairon-Demaret, M., and Scheckler, S.E., 1987, Typifi cation and redescription of Moresnetia zalesskyi Stockmans, 1948, an early seed plant from the Upper Famennian of Belgium: Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Sciences de la Terre, v. 57, p. 183-199.
46. Galtier, J., Paris, F., and Aouad-Debbaj, Z.E., 1996, La présence de Callixylon dans le Dévonien supérieur du Maroc et sa signifi cation paléogéographique: Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, v. 322, p. 893-900.
47. Gastaldo, R.A., Bearce, S.C., Degges, C.W., Hunt, R.J., Peebles, M.W., and Violette, D.L., 1989, Biostratinomy of a Holocene oxbow lake: A backswamp to mid-channel transect: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 58, p. 47-59, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(89)90056-0.
48. Gillespie, W.H., Rothwell, G.W., and Scheckler, S.E., 1981, The earliest seeds: Nature, v. 293, p. 462-464, doi: 10.1038/293462a0.
49. Glaeser, J.D., 1974, Upper Devonian stratigraphy and sedimentary environments in northeastern Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Survey General Geology Report, v. 63, 89 p.
50. Goodarzi, F., Gentzis, T., and Embry, A.F., 1989, Organic petrology of two coal-bearing sequences from the Middle to Upper Devonian of Melville Island, Arctic Canada: Calgary, Geological Survey of Canada, Contributions to Canadian Coal Geoscience, no. 89-8, p. 120-130.
51. Goodarzi, F., Gentzis, T., and Harrison, J.C., 1994, Petrology and depositional environment of Upper Devonian coals from eastern Melville Island, Arctic Canada, in Christie, R.L., and McMillan, N.J., The geology of Melville Island, Arctic Canada: Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin, v. 450, p. 203-213.
52. Goodarzi, F., and Goodbody, Q., 1990, Nature and depositional environment of Devonian coals from western Melville Island, Arctic Canada: International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 14, p. 175-196, doi: 10.1016/0166-5162(90)90002-G. (Pubitemid 20674736)
53. Gordon, E.A., and Bridge, J.S., 1987, Evolution of Catskill (Upper Devonian) river systems: Intra- and extrabasinal controls: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 57, p. 234-249.
54. Harvey, A., 1998. A paleoenvironmental reconstruction in the Devonian Sherman Creek Member of the Catskill Formation in central Pennsylvania [Master's thesis]: Philadelphia, Temple University, 90 p.
55. Hill, S.A., Scheckler, S.E., and Basinger, J.F., 1997, Ellesmeris sphenopteroides, gen. et sp. nov., a new zygopterid fern from the Upper Devonian (Frasnian) of Ellesmere, N.W.T., Arctic Canada: American Journal of Botany, v. 84, p. 85-103.
56. Hilton, J., 1999, A Late Devonian plant assemblage from the Avon Gorge, west England: taxonomic, phylogenetic and stratigraphic implications: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 129, p. 1-54, doi: 10.1006/bojl.1998.0209. (Pubitemid 29109721)
57. Hilton, J., and Edwards, D., 1996, A new Late Devonian acupulate preovule from the Taff Gorge, South Wales: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 93, p. 235-252, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(95)00128-X. (Pubitemid 27012843)
58. Hilton, J., and Edwards, D., 1999, New data on Xenotheca devonica Arber and Goode, an enigmatic seed plant cupule with preovules, in Kurmann, M., and Hemsley, A.R., eds., The evolution of plant architecture: London, Kew Botanic Gardens Press, p. 75-90.
59. Hotton, N., Olson, E.C., and Beerbower, R., 1997, Amniote origins and the discovery of herbivory, in Sumida, S.S., and Martin, K.L.M., eds., Amniote origins: San Diego, Academic Press, p. 207-264.
60. Jarvis, E., 1990, New palynological data on the age of the Kiltorkan flora of Co. Kilkenny, Ireland: Journal of Micropalaeontology, v. 9, p. 87-94.
61. Jennings, J.R., 1975, Protostigmaria, a new plant organ from the Lower Mississippian of Virginia: Palaeontology, v. 18, p. 19-24.
62. Jennings, J.R., Karrfalt, E.E., and Rothwell, G.W., 1983, Structure and affinities of Protostigmaria eggertiana: American Journal of Botany, v. 70, p. 963-974.
63. Kaiser, H., 1970, Die Oberdevon-Flora der Bärenisel. 3. Mikroflora des höheren Oberdevons und des Unterkarbons: Palaeontographica Abteilung B, v. 129, p. 71-124.
64. Kenrick, P., and Fairon-Demaret, M., 1991, Archaeopteris roemeriana (Göppert) sensu Stockmans, 1948 from the Upper Famennian of Belgium: Anatomy and leaf polymorphism: Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Sciences de la Terre, v. 61, p. 179-195.
65. Klavins, S.D., and Matten, L.C., 1996, Reconstruction of the frond of Laceya hibernica, a lyginopterid pteridosperm from the uppermost Devonian of Ireland: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 93, p. 253-268
66. Kräusel, R., and Weyland, H., 1941, Pflanzenreste aus dem Devon von Nord- Amerika. II. Die Oberdevonischen Floren von Elkins, West-Virginien, und Perry, Maine, mit Berücksichtigung einiger Stücke von der Chaleur- Bai, Canada: Palaeontographica Abteilung B, v. 86, p. 3-78.
67. Labandeira, C.C., 1998, Plant-insect associations from the fossil record: Geotimes, v. 43, p. 18-24.
68. Labandeira, C.C., and Sepkoski, J.J., 1993, Insect diversity in the fossil record: Science, v. 261, p. 310-315.
69. Matten, L.C., 1995, The megafossil flora from the uppermost Devonian of Hook Head, County Wexford, Ireland: Birbal Sahni Centenary Volume, p. 167-173.
70. Meyer-Berthaud, B., Scheckler, S.E., and Bousquet, J.-L., 2000, The development of Archaeopteris: New evolutionary characters from the structural analysis of an Early Famennian trunk from southeast Morocco: American Journal of Botany, v. 87, p. 456-468.
71. Meyer-Berthaud, B., Scheckler, S.E., and Wendt, J., 1999, Archaeopteris is the earliest known modern tree: Nature, v. 398, p. 700-701, doi: 10.1038/19516. (Pubitemid 29197646)
72. Meyer-Berthaud, B., Wendt, J., and Galtier, J., 1997, First record of a large Callixylon trunk from the Late Devonian of Gondwana: Geological Magazine, v. 134, p. 847-853, doi: 10.1017/S0016756897007814.
73. Nathorst, A.G., 1900, Die oberdevonische Flora (die "Ursaflora) der Bären Insel: Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the University of Uppsala, no.8, v. IV, part 2, p. 1-5.
74. Nathorst, A.G., 1902, Zur oberdevonische Flora der Bären-Insel: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, v. 36, p. 1-60.
75. Nathorst, A.G., 1904, Die oberdevonische Flora des Ellesmere-landes: Report of the Second Norwegian Arctic Expedition in the Fram, 1898-1902, no.1, p. 1-22.
76. Niklas, K.J., 1976, Morphological and chemical examination of Courvoisiella ctenomorpha gen. and sp. nov., a siphonous alga from the Upper Devonian, West Virginia, U.S.A: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 21, p. 187-203, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(76)90048-8.
77. Peppers, R.A., and Pfefferkorn, H.W., 1970, A comparison of the floras of the Colchester (No.2) Coal and the Francis Creek Shale, in Smith, W.H., and others, eds., Depositional environments in parts of the Carbondale Formation-Western and Northern Illinois: Springfi eld, Illinois, Illinois State Geological Survey Field Guidebook Series, no. 8, p. 61-74.
78. Petrosyan, N.M., 1968, Stratigraphic importance of the Devonian flora of the USSR in Oswald, D. H., ed., International Symposium on the Devonian System, Volume 1: Calgary, Alberta, Canada, Alberta Society of Petroleum Geology, p. 579-586.
79. Pettitt, J.M., and Beck, C.B., 1968, Archaeosperma arnoldii-A cupulate seed from the Upper Devonian of North America: Contributions of the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, v. 22, p. 139-154.
80. Phillips, T.L., Andrews, H.N., and Gensel, P.G., 1972, Two heterosporous species of Archaeopteris from the Upper Devonian of West Virginia: Palaeontographica Abteilung B, v. 139, p. 47-71.
81. Rahmanian, V., 1979, Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Upper Devonian Catskill and uppermost Trimmers Rock Formation in central Pennsylvania [Ph.D. thesis]: State College, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University, 340 p.
82. Retallack, G.J., 1985, Fossil soils as grounds for interpreting the advent of large plants and animals on land: Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions, ser. B, v. 309, p. 105-142.
83. Retallack, G.J., 1997, Early forest soils and their role in Devonian global change: Science, v. 276, p. 583-585, doi: 10.1126/science.276.5312.583. (Pubitemid 27193680)
84. Richardson, J.B., and McGregor, D.C., 1986, Silurian and Devonian spore zones of the Old Red Sandstone continent and adjacent regions: Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin, v. 364, p. 1-79.
85. Rothwell, G.W., and Scheckler, S.E., 1988, Biology of ancestral gymnosperms, in Beck, C.B., Origins and evolution of gymnosperms: New York, Columbia University Press, p. 85-134.
86. Rothwell, G.W., Scheckler, S.E., and Gillespie, W.H., 1989, Elkinsia gen. nov., a Late Devonian gymnosperm with cupulate ovules: Botanical Gazette, v. 150, p. 170-189, doi: 10.1086/337763.
87. Scheckler, S.E., 1978, Ontogeny of progymnosperms. II. Shoots of Upper Devonian Archaeopteridales: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 56, p. 3136-3170.
88. Scheckler, S.E., 1986a, Floras of the Devonian-Mississippian transition, in Gastaldo, R.A., and Broadhead, T.W., Land plants: Notes for a short course: University of Tennessee Department of Geological Sciences Studies in Geology, v. 15, p. 81-96.
89. Scheckler, S.E., 1986b, Old Red Continent facies in the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous of Appalachian North America: Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, v. 109, p. 223-236.
90. Scheckler, S.E., 1986c, Geology, floristics and paleoecology of Late Devonian coal swamps from Appalachian Laurentia (U.S.A.): Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, v. 109, p. 209-222.
91. Scheckler, S.E., 2001. Afforestation-The first forests, in Briggs, D.E.G., and Crowther, P., Palaeobiology II: Oxford, Blackwell Science, p. 67-71.
92. Scheckler, S.E., Cressler, W.L., Connery, T., Klavins, S., and Postnikoff, D., 1999, Devonian shrub and tree dominated landscapes: International Botanical Congress, 16th, St. Louis, Missouri, Abstracts, v. 16, p. 13.
93. Scheihing, S.E., and Pfefferkorn, H.W., 1984, The taphonomy of land plants in the Orinoco Delta: A model for the incorporation of plant parts in clastic sediments of Late Carboniferous age of Euramerica: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 41, p. 205-240, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(84)90047- 2.
94. Scotese, C.R., and McKerrow, W.S., 1990, Revised world maps and introduction, in McKerrow, W.S., and Scotese, C.R., Palaeozoic palaeogeography and biogeography: Geological Society [London] Memoir 12, p.1-21.
95. Scott, A.C., Galtier, J., and Clayton, G., 1984, Distribution of anatomically preserved floras in the Lower Carboniferous in Western Europe: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, v. 75, p. 311-340.
96. Serbet, R., and Rothwell, G.W., 1992, Characterizing the most primitive seed ferns. I. A reconstruction of Elkinsia polymorpha: International Journal of Plant Sciences, v. 153, p. 602-621, doi: 10.1086/297083. (Pubitemid 23390279)
97. Sevon, W.D., 1985, Nonmarine facies of the Middle and Late Devonian Catskill coastal alluvial plain, in Woodrow, D.L., and Sevon, W.D., eds., The Catskill Delta: Geological Society of America Special Paper 201, p. 79-90.
98. Shear, W.A., 1991, The early development of terrestrial ecosystems: Nature, v. 351, p. 283-289, doi: 10.1038/351283a0.
99. Shear, W.A., 2000, Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new trigonotarbid arachnid from the Late Devonian of North America (Chelicerata, Arachnida, Trigonotarbida): Journal of Paleontology, v. 74, p. 25-31.
100. Slingerland, R., and Smith, N.D., 2004, River avulsions and their deposits: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 32, p. 257-285, doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120201. (Pubitemid 38836372)
101. Snigirevskaya, N.S., 1982, The shoot of Archaeopteris archetypus with preserved anatomical structure: Botanicheskii Zhurnal (Academy of Sciences, SSSR), v. 67, p. 1237-1243, (in Russian with English summary).
102. Snigirevskaya, N.S., 1988, The Late Devonian-The time of the appearance of forests as a natural phenomenon, in Contributed papers: The formation and evolution of the continental biotas, L.: 31st Session of the All-Union Palaeontological Society, p. 115-124 (in Russian).
103. Snigirevskaya, N.S., 1995a, Archaeopterids and their role in the land plant cover evolution: Botanicheskii Zhurnal (Academy of Sciences, SSSR), v. 80, p. 70-75.
104. Snigirevskaya, N.S., 1995b, Early evolution of forest ecosystems (the Late Devonian): International Symposium on Ecosystem Evolution, Moscow, Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1995, Abstracts, p. 87-88.
105. Stewart, W.N., and Rothwell, G.W., 1993, Paleobotany and the evolution of plants: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 521 p.
106. Stockmans, F., 1948, Végétaux du Dévonien Supérieur de la Belgique: Mémoires du Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, v. 110, p. 1-85.
107. Streel, M., and Scheckler, S.E., 1990, Miospore lateral distribution in upper Famennian alluvial lagoonal to tidal facies from eastern United States and Belgium: Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 64, p. 315-324, doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(90)90147-B.
108. Traverse, A., 2003, Dating the earliest tetrapods: A Catskill palynological problem in Pennsylvania: Courier Forschungs-Institut Senckenberg, v. 241, p. 19-29.
109. Utting, J., and Neves, R., 1969, Palynology of the Lower Limestone Shale Group (Basal Carboniferous Limestone series) and Portishead Beds, (Upper Old Red Sandstone) of the Avon Gorge, Bristol, England: Colloque sur la stratigraphie du Carbonifère Congrès et colloques, Université de Liège, p. 411-422.
110. Walker, R.G., 1971, Nondeltaic depositional environments in the Catskill clastic wedge (Upper Devonian) of central Pennsylvania: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1305-1326.
111. Walker, R.G., and Harms, J.C., 1971, The "Catskill Delta": A prograding muddy shoreline in central Pennsylvania: Journal of Geology, v. 79, p. 381-399.
112. Westenberg, K., 1999, The rise of life on Earth: From fins to feet: National Geographic, v. 195, p. 114-127.
113. White, M.E., 1986, The greening of Gondwana: Frenchs Forest, New South Wales, Reed Books, p. 84.
114. Woodrow, D.L., Fletcher, F.W., and Ahrnsbrak, W.F., 1973, Paleogeography and paleoclimate at the deposition sites of the Devonian Catskill and Old Red facies: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 3051-3064, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<3051:PAPATD>2.0.CO;2.
115. Woodrow, D.L., Robinson, R.A.J., Prave, A.R., Traverse, A., Daeschler, E.B., Rowe, N.D., and DeLaney, N.A., 1995, Stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and temporal framework of Red Hill (Upper Devonian Catskill Formation) near Hyner, Clinton County, Pennsylvania: Site of the oldest amphibian known from North America, in Guidebook, 60th Annual Field Conference of Pennsylvania Geologists, 16 p.