The neural mechanisms of inter-temporal decision-making: Understanding variability

Trends in Cognitive Sciences

Volumn 15, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 227-239

  Peters, Jan ^a   Büchel, Christian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER HAMBURG EPPENDORF   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COGNITIVE CONTROL; DELAYED REWARDS; HEALTHY SUBJECTS; HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER; IMPULSE CONTROL; NEURAL MECHANISMS; STATE EFFECTS;

ANIMALS; DECISION MAKING;

BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH;

ADDICTION; ANTERIOR CINGULATE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; COGNITION; CORPUS STRIATUM; DECISION MAKING; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDER; NEUROSCIENCE; ORBITAL CORTEX; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; REVIEW; SUBSTANTIA NIGRA; TEMPORAL LOBE;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; BRAIN MAPPING; COGNITION; COMPREHENSION; COMPUTER SIMULATION; DECISION MAKING; HUMANS; MODELS, NEUROLOGICAL; NERVE NET; REWARD; TEMPORAL LOBE;

EID: 79955479795     PISSN: 13646613     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.03.002     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Green L., Myerson J. A discounting framework for choice with delayed and probabilistic rewards. Psychol. Bull. 2004, 130:769-792.
2. Samuelson P.A. A note on measurement of utility. Rev. Econ. Stud. 1937, 4:155-161.
3. Mazur J.E. An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. The Effect of Delay and of Intervening Events on Reinforcement Value Quantitative Analyses of Behavior 1987, Vol. 5:55-73. Lawrence Erlbaum.
4. McKerchar T.L., et al. A comparison of four models of delay discounting in humans. Behav. Process 2009, 81:256-259.
5. Myerson J., et al. Area under the curve as a measure of discounting. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 2001, 76:235-243.
6. McClure S.M., et al. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 2004, 306:503-507.
7. Myerson J., Green L. Discounting of delayed rewards: models of individual choice. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1995, 64:263-276.
8. Rachlin H. Notes on discounting. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 2006, 85:425-435.
9. Takahashi T., et al. Psychophysics of time perception and intertemporal choice models. Phys. A 2008, 387:2066-2074.
10. Zauberman G., et al. Discounting time and time discounting: subjective time perception and intertemporal preferences. J. Marketing Res. 2009, XLVI:543-556.
11. Kable J.W., Glimcher P.W. The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 2007, 10:1625-1633.
12. Peters J., Büchel C. Overlapping and distinct neural systems code for subjective value during intertemporal and risky decision making. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:15727-15734.
13. Ohmura Y., et al. Three-month stability of delay and probability discounting measures. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2006, 14:318-328.
14. Ballard K., Knutson B. Dissociable neural representations of future reward magnitude and delay during temporal discounting. Neuroimage 2009, 45:143-150.
15. Anokhin A.P., et al. Heritability of delay discounting in adolescence: a longitudinal twin study. Behav. Genet. 2011, 41:175-183.
16. Kirby K.N. One-year temporal stability of delay-discount rates. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2009, 16:457-462.
17. Dixon M.R., et al. Contextual control of delay discounting by pathological gamblers. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 2006, 39:413-422.
18. Kim S., et al. Prefrontal coding of temporally discounted values during intertemporal choice. Neuron 2008, 59:161-172.
19. Kable J.W., Glimcher P.W. An "as soon as possible" effect in human intertemporal decision making: behavioral evidence and neural mechanisms. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 103:2513-2531.
20. Peters J., Büchel C. Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions. Neuron 2010, 66:138-148.
21. Bickel W.K., et al. Behavioral and neuroeconomics of drug addiction: competing neural systems and temporal discounting processes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007, 90(Suppl. 1):S85-91.
22. Businelle M.S., et al. A comparison of delay discounting among smokers, substance abusers, and non-dependent controls. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010, 12:247-250.
23. Kirby K.N., et al. Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 1999, 128:78-87.
24. Madden G.J., et al. Impulsive and self-control choices in opioid-dependent patients and non-drug-using control participants: drug and monetary rewards. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1997, 5:256-262.
25. Monterosso J.R., et al. Frontoparietal cortical activity of methamphetamine-dependent and comparison subjects performing a delay discounting task. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2007, 28:383-393.
26. Bickel W.K., et al. Impulsivity and cigarette smoking: delay discounting in current, never, and ex-smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 1999, 146:447-454.
27. Bickel W.K., et al. Cigarette smokers discount past and future rewards symmetrically and more than controls: is discounting a measure of impulsivity?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008, 96:256-262.
28. Mitchell S.H. Measures of impulsivity in cigarette smokers and non-smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 1999, 146:455-464.
29. Peters J., et al. Lower ventral striatal activation during reward anticipation in adolescent smokers. Am. J. Psychiatry 2011, 10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10071024.
30. Audrain-McGovern J., et al. Does delay discounting play an etiological role in smoking or is it a consequence of smoking?. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009, 103:99-106.
31. Johnson M.W., et al. Moderate drug use and delay discounting: a comparison of heavy, light, and never smokers. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2007, 15:187-194.
32. Petry N.M. Delay discounting of money and alcohol in actively using alcoholics, currently abstinent alcoholics, and controls. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2001, 154:243-250.
33. Mitchell J.M., et al. Impulsive responding in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 2005, 29:2158-2169.
34. Alessi S.M., Petry N.M. Pathological gambling is associated with impulsivity in a delay discounting procedure. Behav. Process. 2003, 64:345-354.
35. Petry N.M. Pathological gamblers, with and without substance use disorders, discount delayed rewards at high rates. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2001, 110:482-487.
36. Petry N.M., Casarella T. Excessive discounting of delayed rewards in substance abusers with gambling problems. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999, 56:25-32.
37. Dixon M.R., et al. Delay discounting by pathological gamblers. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 2003, 36:449-458.
38. Reuter J., et al. Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward system. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8:147-148.
39. Giordano L.A., et al. Mild opioid deprivation increases the degree that opioid-dependent outpatients discount delayed heroin and money. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2002, 163:174-182.
40. Field M., et al. Delay discounting and the behavioural economics of cigarette purchases in smokers: the effects of nicotine deprivation. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2006, 186:255-263.
41. Wills T.A., et al. Novelty seeking, risk taking, and related constructs as predictors of adolescent substance use: an application of Cloninger's theory. J. Subst. Abuse. 1994, 6:1-20.
42. Paus T., et al. Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence?. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:947-957.
43. Chambers R.A., et al. Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. Am. J. Psychiatry 2003, 160:1041-1052.
44. Perry J.L., et al. Impulsivity (delay discounting) as a predictor of acquisition of IV cocaine self-administration in female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2005, 178:193-201.
45. Mendez I.A., et al. Self-administered cocaine causes long-lasting increases in impulsive choice in a delay discounting task. Behav. Neurosci. 2010, 124:470-477.
46. Roesch M.R., et al. Previous cocaine exposure makes rats hypersensitive to both delay and reward magnitude. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:245-250.
47. Nader M.A., et al. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in monkeys. Nat. Neurosci. 2006, 9:1050-1056.
48. Richards J.B., et al. Effects of methamphetamine on the adjusting amount procedure, a model of impulsive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 1999, 146:432-439.
49. Kable J.W., Glimcher P.W. The neurobiology of decision: consensus and controversy. Neuron 2009, 63:733-745.
50. Chib V.S., et al. Evidence for a common representation of decision values for dissimilar goods in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:12315-12320.
51. Peters J., Büchel C. Neural representations of subjective reward value. Behav. Brain Res. 2010, 213:135-141.
52. Kringelbach M.L., Rolls E.T. The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Prog. Neurobiol. 2004, 72:341-372.
53. Schultz W., et al. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 1997, 275:1593-1599.
54. Haber S.N., Knutson B. The reward circuit: linking primate anatomy and human imaging. Neurosci. 2010, 35:4-26.
55. Rangel A., et al. A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:545-556.
56. Schoenbaum G., Setlow B., Saddoris M.P., Gallagher M. Encoding predicted outcome and acquired value in orbitofrontal cortex during cue sampling depends upon input from basolateral amygdala. Neuron 2003, 39:855-867.
57. Prevost C., et al. Separate valuation subsystems for delay and effort decision costs. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:14080-14090.
58. Sripada C.S., et al. The neural correlates of intertemporal decision-making: contributions of subjective value, stimulus type, and trait impulsivity. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2010, 10.1002/hbm.21136.
59. Kalenscher T., et al. Single units in the pigeon brain integrate reward amount and time-to-reward in an impulsive choice task. Curr. Biol. 2005, 15:594-602.
60. Weber B.J., Huettel S.A. The neural substrates of probabilistic and intertemporal decision making. Brain Res. 2008, 1234:104-115.
61. McClure S.M., et al. Time discounting for primary rewards. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:5796-5804.
62. Hare T.A., et al. Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science 2009, 324:646-648.
63. Luo S., et al. Behavioral and neural evidence of incentive bias for immediate rewards relative to preference-matched delayed rewards. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:14820-14827.
64. Sellitto M., et al. Myopic discounting of future rewards after medial orbitofrontal damage in humans. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:16429-16436.
65. Diekhof E.K., et al. Functional neuroimaging of reward processing and decision-making: a review of aberrant motivational and affective processing in addiction and mood disorders. Brain Res. Rev. 2008, 59:164-184.
66. Martin-Soelch C., et al. Changes in reward-induced brain activation in opiate addicts. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2001, 14:1360-1368.
67. Goldstein R.Z., et al. Is decreased prefrontal cortical sensitivity to monetary reward associated with impaired motivation and self-control in cocaine addiction? Am. J. Psychiatry 2007, 164:43-51.
68. Buhler M., et al. Nicotine dependence is characterized by disordered reward processing in a network driving motivation. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 67:745-752.
69. Kalivas P.W., Volkow N.D. The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162:1403-1413.
70. Volkow N.D., et al. Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature 1997, 386:830-833.
71. Martin-Soelch C., et al. Neural activity related to the processing of increasing monetary reward in smokers and nonsmokers. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003, 18:680-688.
72. Luo S., et al. Striatal hyposensitivity to delayed rewards among cigarette smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.012.
73. Hariri A.R., et al. Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:13213-13217.
74. Boettiger C.A., et al. Immediate reward bias in humans: fronto-parietal networks and a role for the catechol-O-methyltransferase 158(Val/Val) genotype. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:14383-14391.
75. Cardinal R.N., et al. Impulsive choice induced in rats by lesions to the nucleus accumbens core. Science 2001, 292:2499-2501.
76. Dalley J.W., et al. Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 2007, 315:1267-1270.
77. Pochon J.B., et al. Functional imaging of decision conflict. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:3468-3473.
78. Marco-Pallares J., et al. Brain activations reflect individual discount rates in intertemporal choice. Brain Res. 2010, 1320:123-129.
79. Pine A., et al. Encoding of marginal utility across time in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:9575-9581.
80. Hoffman W.F., et al. Cortical activation during delay discounting in abstinent methamphetamine dependent individuals. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2008, 201:183-193.
81. Venkatraman V., et al. Resolving response, decision, and strategic control: evidence for a functional topography in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:13158-13164.
82. Botvinick M.M. Conflict monitoring and decision making: reconciling two perspectives on anterior cingulate function. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 2007, 7:356-366.
83. Figner B., et al. Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13:538-539.
84. Miller E.K., Cohen J.D. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001, 24:167-202.
85. Hester R., Garavan H. Executive dysfunction in cocaine addiction: evidence for discordant frontal, cingulate, and cerebellar activity. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:11017-11022.
86. Luhmann C.C., et al. Neural dissociation of delay and uncertainty in intertemporal choice. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:14459-14466.
87. Shamosh N.A., et al. Individual differences in delay discounting: relation to intelligence, working memory, and anterior prefrontal cortex. Psychol. Sci. 2008, 19:904-911.
88. Cheung T.H., Cardinal R.N. Hippocampal lesions facilitate instrumental learning with delayed reinforcement but induce impulsive choice in rats. B.M.C. Neurosci. 2005, 6:36.
89. Mariano T.Y., et al. Impulsive choice in hippocampal but not orbitofrontal cortex-lesioned rats on a nonspatial decision-making maze task. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2009, 30:472-484.
90. Rawlins J.N., et al. The effects of delaying reward on choice preference in rats with hippocampal or selective septal lesions. Behav. Brain Res. 1985, 15:191-203.
91. Winstanley C.A., et al. Contrasting roles of basolateral amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex in impulsive choice. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:4718-4722.
92. Floresco S.B., Ghods-Sharifi S. Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making. Cereb. Cortex 2007, 17:251-260.
93. Ghods-Sharifi S., et al. Fundamental contribution by the basolateral amygdala to different forms of decision making. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:5251-5259.
94. Gupta R., et al. The amygdala and decision-making. Neuropsychologia 2010, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.029.
95. Sharot T., et al. Neural mechanisms mediating optimism bias. Nature 2007, 450:102-105.
96. Johnson A., Redish A.D. Neural ensembles in CA3 transiently encode paths forward of the animal at a decision point. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:12176-12189.
97. van der Meer M.A., et al. Triple dissociation of information processing in dorsal striatum, ventral striatum, and hippocampus on a learned spatial decision task. Neuron 2010, 67:25-32.
98. Schacter D., et al. Remembering the past to imagine the future: the prospective brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2007, 8:657-661.
99. Bar M. The proactive brain: memory for predictions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2009, 364:1235-1243.
100. Addis D.R., Schacter D.L. Constructive episodic simulation: temporal distance and detail of past and future events modulate hippocampal engagement. Hippocampus 2008, 18:227-237.
101. Gupta R., et al. Declarative memory is critical for sustained advantageous complex decision-making. Neuropsychologia 2009, 47:1686-1693.
102. Johnson A., et al. Integrating hippocampus and striatum in decision-making. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2007, 17:692-697.
103. Bar M. Wait for the second marshmallow? Future-oriented thinking and delayed reward discounting in the brain. Neuron 2010, 66:4-5.
104. Hassabis D., et al. Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2007, 104:1726-1731.
105. Cools R. Role of dopamine in the motivational and cognitive control of behavior. Neuroscientist 2008, 14:381-395.
106. Yacubian J., et al. Gene-gene interaction associated with neural reward sensitivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2007, 104:8125-8130.
107. Diekhof E.K., Gruber O. When desire collides with reason: functional interactions between anteroventral prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens underlie the human ability to resist impulsive desires. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:1488-1493.
108. Addis D.R., et al. Age-related changes in the episodic simulation of future events. Psychol. Sci. 2008, 19:33-41.
109. Wittmann M., Paulus M.P. Decision making, impulsivity and time perception. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2008, 12:7-12.
110. Tversky A., Kahneman D. The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science 1981, 211:453-458.
111. Weber E.U., et al. Asymmetric discounting in intertemporal choice: a query theory account. Psychol. Sci. 2008, 18:516-523.
112. Read D., et al. Four score and seven years from now: the date/delay effect in temporal discounting. Manag. Sci. 2005, 51:1326-1335.
113. Boyer P. Evolutionary economics of mental time travel?. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2008, 12:219-224.
114. Trope Y., Liberman N. Temporal construal. Psychol. Rev. 2003, 110:403-421.
115. Trope Y., Liberman N. Temporal construal and time-dependent changes in preference. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 79:876-889.
116. Wilson M., Daly M. Do pretty women inspire men to discount the future?. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2004, 271(Suppl. 4):S177-S179.
117. Nader M.A., et al. Positron emission tomography imaging studies of dopamine receptors in primate models of addiction. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2008, 363:3223-3232.
118. Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Drug addiction: bad habits add up. Nature 1999, 398:567-570.
119. Luman M., et al. Identifying the neurobiology of altered reinforcement sensitivity in ADHD: a review and research agenda. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 34:744-754.
120. Buckholtz J.W., et al. Dopaminergic network differences in human impulsivity. Science 2010, 329:p532.
121. Pine A., et al. Dopamine, time, and impulsivity in humans. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:8888-8896.
122. Cools R., et al. L-Dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2003, 41:1431-1441.
123. Rada P., et al. Effects of nicotine and mecamylamine-induced withdrawal on extracellular dopamine and acetylcholine in the rat nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2001, 157:105-110.
124. Natividad L.A., et al. Nicotine withdrawal produces a decrease in extracellular levels of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens that is lower in adolescent versus adult male rats. Synapse 2010, 64:136-145.
125. Epping-Jordan M.P., et al. Dramatic decreases in brain reward function during nicotine withdrawal. Nature 1998, 393:76-79.
126. Wade T.R., et al. Effects of dopaminergic drugs on delayed reward as a measure of impulsive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2000, 150:90-101.
127. de Wit H., et al. Acute administration of d-amphetamine decreases impulsivity in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002, 27:813-825.
128. Wang X.T., Dvorak R.D. Sweet future: fluctuating blood glucose levels affect future discounting. Psychol. Sci. 2010, 21:183-188.
129. Zlomke K.R., Dixon M.R. Modification of slot-machine preferences through the use of a conditional discrimination paradigm. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 2006, 39:351-361.
130. Dixon M.R., Holton B. Altering the magnitude of delay discounting by pathological gamblers. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 2009, 42:269-275.
131. Bickel W.K., et al. Remember the future: working memory training decreases delay discounting among stimulant addicts. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 69:260-265.
132. Wittmann M., et al. Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimulant-dependent subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007, 90:183-192.
133. Eisenberg D.T., et al. Examining impulsivity as an endophenotype using a behavioral approach: a DRD2 TaqI A and DRD4 48-bp VNTR association study. Behav. Brain Funct. 2007, 3:p2.
134. Bilder R.M., et al. The catechol-O-methyltransferase polymorphism: relations to the tonic-phasic dopamine hypothesis and neuropsychiatric phenotypes. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29:1943-1961.
135. Wilhelm C.J., Mitchell S.H. Strain differences in delay discounting using inbred rats. Genes Brain Behav. 2009, 8:426-434.
136. Mischel W., et al. Delay of gratification in children. Science 1989, 244:933-938.
137. Scheres A., et al. Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia 2006, 44:2092-2103.
138. Olson E.A., et al. Adolescents' performance on delay and probability discounting tasks: contributions of age, intelligence, executive functioning, and self-reported externalizing behavior. Pers. Individ. Diff. 2007, 43:1886-1897.
139. Steinberg L., et al. Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Dev. 2009, 80:28-44.
140. Christakou A., et al. Maturation of limbic corticostriatal activation and connectivity associated with developmental changes in temporal discounting. Neuroimage 2011, 54:1344-1354.
141. Olson E.A., et al. White matter integrity predicts delay discounting behavior in 9- to 23-year-olds: a diffusion tensor imaging study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 2009, 21:1406-1421.
142. Prencipe A., et al. Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 2011, 108:621-637.
143. Arnett J.J. Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. Am. Psychol. 1999, 54:317-326.
144. Green L., et al. Temporal discounting in choice between delayed rewards: the role of age and income. Psychol. Aging 1996, 11:79-84.
145. Green L., et al. Discounting of delayed rewards: a life-span comparison. Psychol. Sci. 1994, 5:33-36.
146. Giedd J.N. Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1021:77-85.
147. Casey B.J., et al. The adolescent brain. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1124:111-126.
148. Somerville L.H., et al. Frontostriatal maturation predicts cognitive control failure to appetitive cues in adolescents. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 2010, 10.1162/jocn.2010.21572.
149. Cohen J.R., et al. A unique adolescent response to reward prediction errors. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13:669-671.
150. Bjork J.M., et al. Delay discounting correlates with proportional lateral frontal cortex volumes. Biol. Psychiatry 2009, 65:710-713.
151. Friston K.J., et al. Psychophysiological and modulatory interactions in neuroimaging. Neuroimage 1997, 6:218-229.
152. Friston K.J., Dolan R.J. Computational and dynamic models in neuroimaging. Neuroimage 2010, 52:752-765.
153. Churchwell J.C., et al. Interactions between the prefrontal cortex and amygdala during delay discounting and reversal. Behav. Neurosci. 2009, 123:1185-1196.
154. Knoch D., et al. Disruption of right prefrontal cortex by low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation induces risk-taking behavior. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:6469-6472.
155. Camus M., et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex decreases valuations during food choices. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2009, 30:1980-1988.
156. Bechara A., et al. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 1994, 50:7-15.
157. Bechara A., et al. Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19:5473-5481.
158. Bechara A., et al. Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain 2000, 123:2189-2202.
159. Clark L., et al. Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision-making. Brain 2008, 131:1311-1322.
160. Tranel D., et al. Asymmetric functional roles of right and left ventromedial prefrontal cortices in social conduct, decision-making, and emotional processing. Cortex 2002, 38:589-612.
161. Naccache L., et al. Effortless control: executive attention and conscious feeling of mental effort are dissociable. Neuropsychologia 2005, 43:1318-1328.
162. Fellows L.K., Farah M.J. Dissociable elements of human foresight: a role for the ventromedial frontal lobes in framing the future, but not in discounting future rewards. Neuropsychologia 2005, 43:1214-1221.
163. Frank M.J., Claus E.D. Anatomy of a decision: striato-orbitofrontal interactions in reinforcement learning, decision making, and reversal. Psychol. Rev. 2006, 113:300-326.