Still a house divided: Race and politics in Obama's America

Still a House Divided: Race and Politics in Obama's America

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages

  King, Desmond S ^a   Smith, Rogers M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

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EID: 79955452524     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (545)

1. United Church of Christ, "What is the United Church of Christ?" http://www.ucc.org/about-us/what-is-the-united-church-of.html
2. Ibid.; Barbara Brown Zikmund, "Beyond Historical Orthodoxy," United Church of Christ, http://www.ucc.org/about-us/hidden-histories/beyond-historical-orthodoxy.html
3. GreatSeal.com, "E Pluribus Unum-Origin and Meaning of the Motto Carried by the American Eagle," http://www.greatseal.com/mottoes/unum.html
4. John Fischer, "Germantown Neighborhood of Philadelphia," About.com, http://philadelphia.about.com/od/neighborhoods/p/germantown.html
5. Ronald Kessler, "Obama's Mythology about Pastor Wright," Cutting Edge, April 21, 2008, http://www.thecuttingedgenews.com/index.php?article=446.
6. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1995, 2004), 282.
7. Biography.com, "Jeremiah A. Wright, Jr. Biography," http://www.biography.com/articles/Jeremiah-A.-Wright-Jr.-29958.
8. James H. Cone, A Black Theology of Liberation, Twentieth Anniversary Edition (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990), 7, 21-22, 28.
9. "Transcript: Rev. Jeremiah Wright Speech to National Press Club," Chicago Tribune, April 28, 2008, http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-wrighttranscript-04282008,0,3113697.story.
10. Barack Obama, The Audacity of Hope (New York: Three Rivers Press), 202-4, 207-8.
11. Brian Ross and Rehab El-Buri, "Obama's Pastor: God Damn America, U.S. to Blame for 9/11," March 13, 2008, ABC News, http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/story?id=4443788.
12. Barack Obama, "A More Perfect Union," National Constitution Center, March 18, 2008, http://constitutioncenter.org/amoreperfectunion/docs/Race_Speech_Transcript.pdf.
13. Ibid.; "Dr. Martin Luther King's 1963 WMU Speech Found," Archives and Regional History Collections, http://www.wmich.edu/library/archives/mlk/q-a.html
14. Obama, "A More Perfect Union."
15. Wright went on to make speeches arguing that blacks and whites were "equal" but "different," relying on different sides of their brains to learn, and worse, comments widely seen as anti-Semitic. But he did so while acknowledging that he was no longer
16. Martin Luther King Jr., "I Have a Dream" Speech, U.S. Constitution Online, last modifi ed March 3, 2010, http://www.usconstitution.net/dream.html
17. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978); Thomas Byrne Edsall with Mary D. Edsall, Racial Alliances Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), 3, 5, 18.
18. For an analysis of those circumstances, see Philip A. Klinkner with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
19. As detailed in later chapters, the party platforms supporting these characterizations can be found at John Woolley and Gerhard Peters, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php. E.g., Nolan McCarty, Keith T. Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, Polarized America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).
20. Compare, for example, Jim Sleeper, Liberal Racism: How Fixating on Race Subverts the American Dream, and Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and Racial Inequality in Contemporary America, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefi eld, 2010).
21. Jennifer L. Hochschild, "The Strange Career of Affi rmative Action," Ohio State Law Journal 59 (1998): 998. Jennifer L. Hochschild, "Affi rmative Action as Culture War," in The Cultural Territories of Race: Black and White Boundaries, ed. Michèle Lamont (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 346.
22. Peter H. Schuck, Diversity in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 163-69, 198;
23. U.S. Census Bureau, "Table 337. Jail Inmates by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1990 to 2008," http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0337.pdf.
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26. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln, 242-43;
27. Quoted in Nordin, New Deal's Black Congressman, 250
28. Barbara Y. Welke, "When All the Women Were White, and All the Blacks Were Men: Gender, Class, Race, and the Road to Plessy, 1855-1914," Law and History Review 13 (1995): 261-316;
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30. Kevin J. McMahon, Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 161
31. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade, 30th anniversary ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 177-78.
32. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 77-79;
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34. Jennifer Hochschild and Vesla Weaver, "There's No One as Irish as Barack O'Bama: The Policy and Politics of American Multiculturalism," Perspectives on Politics 8 (2010): 738.
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38. Donald R. Kinder and Lynn M. Sanders, Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)
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40. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1996);
41. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999);
42. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004);
43. David R. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America's Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
44. Nordin, New Deal's Black Congressman, 254, 264-77.
45. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880 (New York: Atheneum, 1935, 1992), 178, 193, 195;
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47. Michael Les Benedict, A Compromise of Principle: Congressional Republicans and Reconstruction, 1863-1869 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 210-43, 252-56;
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49. William C. Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1970).
50. S. M. Lipset, The First New Nation (New York: Anchor, 1967).
51. Dana Bash and Emily Sherman, "Sotomayor's 'Wise Latina' Comment a Staple of Her Speeches," CNN.com, June 8, 2009, http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/05/sotomayor.speeches/#cnnSTCTest, accessed September 30, 2009.
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53. Reva B. Siegel, "Equality Talk: Anti-Subordination and Anti-Classifi cation Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown," Harvard Law Review 17 (2003-4): 1470-547.
54. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)
55. Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of the United States, South Africa and Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
56. Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), 88-89.
57. Philip A. Klinkner with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise andDecline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 17-23.
58. Akhil Amar, America's Constitution: A Biography (New York: Random House, 2005), 150.
59. Amar, America's Constitution, 98.
60. Lois E. Horton, "From Class to Race in Early America: Northern Post-Emancipation Racial Reconstruction," Journal of the Early Republic 19 (1999): 637-39.
61. Jared Sparks, ed., Letters and Recollections of George Washington (New York: Doubleday, 1906), 38.
62. Fritz Hirschfeld, George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 214-15.
63. David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789-1801 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 66-67, 230-32.
64. Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 14-15; Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 173-76.
65. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 98-157.
66. Eugene H. Berwanger, The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967), 42-49, 140;
67. Lawrence H. Fuchs, The American Kaleidoscope: Race, Ethnicity and the Civic Culture (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990), 91-93;
68. Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 31, 70-93, 113-15.
69. Berwanger, Frontier Against Slavery, 93.
70. Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955);
71. David F. Ericson, "Dew, Fitzhugh and Proslavery Liberalism," in The Liberal Tradition in American Politics: Reassessing the Legacy of American Liberalism, ed. David F. Ericson and Louisa Bertch Green (New York: Routledge, 1999);
72. David F. Ericson, The Debate Over Slavery (New York: New York University Press, 2000);
73. J. David Greenstone, The Lincoln Persuasion: Remaking American Liberalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 85-117;
74. Karen Orren and Stephen Skowronek, The Search for American Political Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
75. Michael Goldfi eld, The Color of Politics (New York: The New Press, 1997), 79-80, 92.
76. Edward P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 24, 35-39.
77. Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Review 181 (1990): 95-118.
78. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York: Atheneum, 1992 [1935]), 700-701.
79. Charles R. Kesler, "The Promise of American Citizenship," in. Immigration and Citizenship in the 21st Century, ed. Noah Pickus (Boston: Rowman and Littlefi eld, 1998), 13-23.
80. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfi nished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 75-87, 124-26, 543-47;
81. Takaki, Different Mirror, 129-30;
82. William M. Wiecek, The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760-1860 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977), 153-62, 216-48.
83. Mark A. Graber, Dred Scott and the Problem of Constitutional Evil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 127.
84. John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss Jr., From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 161-62.
85. Groves v. Slaughter (15 Pet. 449, 1841).
86. U.S. v. Schooner Amistad (15 Pet. 518, 1841).
87. Prigg v. Pennsylvania (16 Pet. 539, 1842).
88. David J. Bederman, "The Cautionary Tale of Alexander McLeod: Superior Orders and the American Writ of Habeas Corpus," Emory Law Journal 41 (1992): 528.
89. Strader v. Graham (10 How. 82, 1851).
90. Dred Scott v. Sandford (19 How. 393, 1857).
91. Graber, Dred Scott, 30-31, 34.
92. Alexander H. Stephens, "Cornerstone Speech," Teaching American History.org, http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76.
93. Greenstone, The Lincoln Persuasion, 245-85.
94. Abraham Lincoln, The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Arthur B. Lapsley (New York: Lamb, 1905-6), 7:366.
95. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 852.
96. Richard M. Valelly, The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 27.
97. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfi nished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row), 165-75, 215-16;
98. Smith, Civic Ideals, 302-12; Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 28-32.
99. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 92.
100. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 106-9.
101. Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006); LeAnna Keith, The Colfax Massacre (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
102. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 91-96.
103. American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29579.
104. Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigrant Policy in the Fashioning of America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 183.
105. Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 102.
106. John F. Morgan, "The Political Alliance of the South and the West," North American Review 126 (1878): 313-16, cited in Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 104.
107. Cited in Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 3-4.
108. Quoted in Paul Gordon Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996), 41.
109. American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29582, 29625.
110. The numbers come from Gyory, Closing the Gate, 238-39.
111. Charles Darwin, The Origin of the Species and the Descent of Man (New York: Modern Library, 1936), 530-31, 539-43,
112. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994);
113. Fuchs, American Kaleidoscope, 96-98;
114. David M. Oshinsky, Worse Than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (New York: Free Press, 1996), 40-41.
115. Ellen Carol Dubois, Feminism and Suffrage (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978), 53-104.
116. Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 127-95.
117. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984),
118. Rydell, World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993);
119. James Gilbert, Whose Fair? Experience, Memory and the History of the Great St. Louis Exposition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
120. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 83, 106-8, 118-19; Zolberg, Nation by Design, 194, 218-29.
121. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 184.
122. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 105.
123. Smith, Civic Ideals, 391-92.
124. Pamela Brandwein, The Supreme Court, State Action, and Civil Rights (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011);
125. Leslie F. Goldstein, "The Spectre of the Second Amendment: Re-reading Slaughterhouse and Cruikshank," Studies in American Political Development 21 (2007): 1-18.
126. Smith, Civic Ideals, 327-29; Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 110-11.
127. U.S. v. Cruikshank, 25 F. Case. 707, 712-13 (U.S.C.D. La., 1874).
128. U.S. v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1876); Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 111-20.
129. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 13, 18-25 (1883).
130. American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29626
131. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 121.
132. Richard M. Valelly, "The Reed Rules and Republican Party Building: A New Look," Studies in American Political Development 23 (2009): 115-16.
133. Desmond S. King and Rogers M. Smith, "Racial Orders in American Political Development," American Political Science Review 99 (2005): 87.
134. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 1, 131-33.
135. Roberts v. City of Boston, 5 Cushing 198, 296 (Mass., 1849).
136. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 246-47.
137. Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996);
138. Jane Dailey, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds., Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000);
139. Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003);
140. Kimberley Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow: Southern Politics and State in the Age Before Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010);
141. Julie Novkov, Racial Union: Law, Intimacy and the White State in Alabama, 1865-1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008).
142. Desmond S. King and Rogers M. Smith, "Racial Orders in American Political Development," American Political Science Review 99 (2005): 86;
143. Philip A. Klinkner with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 103, 110;
144. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 38-39, 119-33; Zolberg, Nation by Design, 234-38.
145. Lawrence H. Fuchs, The American Kaleidoscope: Race, Ethnicity and the Civic Culture (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990), 80-86;
146. Mai M. Ngai, "The Architecture of American Immigration Law: A Re-examination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (June 1999): 67-92.
147. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 203-45;
148. David R. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America's Immigrants Became White-The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs (New York: Basic, 2005);
149. Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little Brown, 1993), 148-54, 209-13;
150. Walter L. Williams, "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism," Journal of American History 66 (1980): 810-31.
151. Kimberley Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow, 17.
152. Robert L. Zangrando, The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching, 1909-1950 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 6.
153. Amii Larkin Barnard, "The Application of Critical Race Feminism to the Anti-Lynching Movement: Black Women's Fight Against Race and Gender Ideology, 1892-1920," UCLA Women's Law Journal 3 (1993): 15-20; Waldrep, African Americans, 46-50.
154. Donald G. Nieman, Promises to Keep: African-Americans and the Constitutional Order, 1776 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 12
155. George C. Rable, "The South and the Politics of Antilynching Legislation, 1920-1940," Journal of Southern History 51 (1985): 203-6; Waldrep, African Americans, 71-75.
156. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 20.
157. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 144-46, 150-51
158. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 258-64
159. Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow, 43-65
160. Rable, "Politics of Antilynching," 208.
161. Rable, "Politics of Antilynching," 209-20
162. Waldrep, African Americans, 81-85.
163. E. David Cronon, Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969 [1955]), 189-95.
164. Lawrie Balfour, "Unreconstructed Democracy: W.E.B. Du Bois and the Case for Reparations," American Political Science Review 97 (2003): 33-44;
165. John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss Jr., From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 6th ed., (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 244-50.
166. Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed., 306.
167. Ira Katznelson, When Affi rmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 20-22.
168. Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed., 342-44.
169. Lawrence S. Wittner, "The National Negro Congress: A Reassessment," American Quarterly 22 (1970): 884;
170. Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).
171. Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed., 339-48;
172. Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984);
173. Michael Omni and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 98-99.
174. Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow, 19-42.
175. Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001);
176. Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996);
177. Margaret Weir, "States, Race and the Decline of New Deal Liberalism," Studies in American Political Development 19 (2005): 157-72.
178. The standard account is Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line, 26-64.
179. Katznelson, Affi rmative Action
180. Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
181. Ira Katznelson, Kim Geiger, and Daniel Kryder, "Limiting Liberalism: The Southern Veto in Congress, 1933-1950," Political Science Quarterly 108 (1993): 283-306;
182. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line; Kevin J. McMahon, Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
183. Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 176-211;
184. Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow, 104-5.
185. Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 119-20.
186. United States v. Ju Toy, 198 U.S. 253 (1905), and for discussion, Smith, Civic Ideals, 444-46.
187. Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922); Smith, Civic Ideals, 433-39.
188. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 187-88.
189. Degler, In Search of Human Nature, 203.
190. American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29640.
191. Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow, 16-17, 25-26.
192. Azza Salam Layton, International Politics and Civil Rights Policies in the United States, 1941-1960 (New York: Cambridge, 2000), 92;
193. Herbert Brownell with John P. Burke, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993);
194. Paula Wilson, ed., The Civil Rights Rhetoric of Hubert H. Humphrey, 1948-1964 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1996);
195. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 260.
196. Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed., 438-41.
197. Branch, Parting the Waters, 846-87;
198. Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed., 441-45;
199. Klinkner with Smith, Unsteady March, 243, 256-70.
200. Sean Farhang, The Litigation State: Public Regulation and Private Lawsuits in the U.S. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 94-128.
201. Philip A. Klinkner, The Losing Parties: Out-Party National Committees, 1956-1993 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 41-70;
202. Theodore H. White, The Making of the President, 1960 (New York: Atheneum Press, 1961), 247-48, 348-50.
203. Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
204. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 3.
205. Jennifer M. Gardner, "Worker Displacement: A Decade of Change," Monthly Labor Review (April 1995): 49, at http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1995/04/art6full.pdf.
206. Douglas S. Massey, Categorically Unequal: The American Stratifi cation System (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 85.
207. Devah Pager, "The Mark of a Criminal Record," American Journal of Sociology 108 (2003): 937-75, 959.
208. Linda Chavez, Out of the Barrio: Towards a New Politics of Hispanic Assimilation (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 5, 56, 169.
209. Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal, 52-55, 65-66, 90-94.
210. Kevin J. McMahon, Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 155-16.
211. Anthony S. Chen, The Fifth Freedom: Jobs, Politics and Civil Rights in the United States, 1941-1972 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 44.
212. Ira Katznelson, When Affi rmative Action Was White (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 8.
213. Chen, Fifth Freedom
214. Anthony S. Chen, "The Party of Lincoln and the Politics of State Fair Employment Practices Legislation in the North, 1945-1964," American Journal of Sociology 112 (May 2007): 1713-74.
215. Anthony S. Chen, "'The Hitlerian Rule of Quotas': Racial Conservatism and the Politics of Fair Employment Legislation in New York State, 1941-1945," Journal of American History 92 (March 2006): 1238-64.
216. Chen, Fifth Freedom, 119.
217. Chen, Fifth Freedom, 131.
218. Hugh Davis Graham, Collision Course: The Strange Convergence of Affi rmative Action and Immigration Policy in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 28-29.
219. Robert C. Lieberman, Shaping Race Policy: The United States in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 159-63.
220. Paul Burstein, Discrimination, Jobs and Politics: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity in the United States since the New Deal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 106-7.
221. Lieberman, Shaping Race Policy, 158-63.
222. Frank Dobbin and John R. Sutton, "The Strength of a Weak State: The Rights Revolution and the Rise of Human Resources Management Divisions," American Journal of Sociology 104 (1998): 441-76, 447.
223. John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affi rmative Action: Politics, Culture and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 69-76;
224. Michael Crane, The Political Junkie Handbook: The Defi nitive Reference Book on Politics (New York: S.P.I. Books, 2004), 13.
225. American Presidency Project, "Political Party Platforms: Parties Receiving Electoral Votes (1840-2008), www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php
226. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 3.
227. Graham, Collision Course, 30-33, 65-66.
228. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 133-35.
229. U.S. Department of Labor, Executive Order 11246 as amended, http://www.dol.gov/ofccp/regs/statutes/eo11246.htm.
230. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 7.
231. Sean Farhang, The Litigation State: Public Regulation and Private Lawsuits in the U.S. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 106.
232. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 90-91.
233. Frymer, Black and Blue, 41-42; Paul Frymer, "Acting When Elected Offi cials Won't: Federal Courts and Civil Rights Enforcement in U.S. Labor Unions, 1935-1985," American Political Science Review 97 (2003): 483-99.
234. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 123.
235. Lieberman, Shaping Race Policy, 185-87;
236. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 124.
237. John David Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 145-46;
238. Graham, Collision Course, 33.
239. Graham, Collision Course, 69-71; Williams, Constraint of Race, 174-77; Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 136-39, 193-211.
240. David Hamilton Golland, "Arthur Fletcher and the Philadelphia Plan, 1969-1971" (paper presented at the Monmouth Conference on Race, November 12, 2010, West Long Branch, NJ), 5.
241. Golland, Constructing Affi rmative Action: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2011).
242. Jill Quadagno, "Social Movements and State Transformation: Labor Unions and Racial Confl ict in the War on Poverty," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 616-34.
243. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 139.
244. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 200.
245. Graham, Collision Course, 72.
246. Golland, "Arthur Fletcher," 9-10.
247. U.S. Civil Service Commission, The Federal Civil Rights Enforcement Efforts, 1974, 385, cited in Frymer, Black and Blue, 38.
248. Charles R. Epp, The Rights Revolution: Lawyers, Activists, and Supreme Courts in Comparative Perspective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
249. Frymer, Black and Blue, 87-88.
250. Farhang, Litigation State, 145-46.
251. Dobbin and Sutton, "Strength of a Weak State," 447, 456.
252. Frymer, Black and Blue, 7; Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003); Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 (2003);
253. James W. Ceaser, Presidential Selection: Theory and Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), 276-91;
254. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 216.
255. Michael K. Brown, Martin Carnoy, Elliot Currie, Troy Duster, David B. Oppenheimer, Marjorie M. Shultz, and David Wellman, Whitewashing Race: The Myth of a Color-Blind Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 161-66.
256. Graham, Collision Course, 65-66.
257. Schuck, Diversity in America, 138.
258. Steven M. Teles, The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 86.
259. American Presidency Project, 25843.
260. Daniel A. Smith, "Howard Jarvis, Populist Entrepreneur: Reevaluating the Causes of Proposition 13," Social Science History 23 (1999): 174, 196-97.
261. Graham, Collision Course, 4.
262. Graham, Collision Course, 91.
263. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 162-63.
264. Mitchell F. Rice, "Government Set-Asides, Minority Business Enterprises, and the Supreme Court," Public Administration Review 51 (1991): 117.
265. Steelworkers, 200.
266. David Bacon, "California Labor Prepares to Defend Affi rmative Action," http://dbacon.igc.org/PJust/01LabDef.html
267. Fullilove, 452.
268. Fullilove, 452-53.
269. Peggy Noonan, When Character Was King: A Story of Ronald Reagan (New York: Viking Adult, 2001).
270. Graham, Collision Course, 91, 156, 173.
271. Frank Dobbin, Inventing Equal Opportunity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).
272. Farhang, Litigation State, 178-80.
273. Charlotte Steeh and Maria Krysan, "Trends: Affi rmative Action and the Public, 1970-1995," Public Opinion Quarterly 60 (1990): 128-58, 146-47;
274. Barbara F. Reskin, The Realities of Affi rmative Action in Employment (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1998), 83-84;
275. Martin Gilens, Paul M. Sniderman, and James H.Kuklinski, "Affi rmative Action and the Politics of Realignment," British Journal of Political Science 28 (1998): 167, 169, 173.
276. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 90-164.
277. Russell Thornton, "Trends Among American Indians in the United States," in Smelser, Wilson, and Mitchell, eds., America Becoming (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001), 152-55.
278. Frank Dobbin, John R. Sutton, John W. Meyer and W. Richard Scott, "Equal Opportunity Law and the Construction of Internal Labor Markets," American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993): 396-427, 401-8.
279. Burstein, Discrimination, Jobs and Politics, 106.
280. Dobbin, Inventing Equal Opportunity, 2.
281. Farhang, Litigation State, 183-85.
282. Skrentny, Ironies of Affi rmative Action, 227.
283. Tamar Lewin, "Colleges Regroup After Voters Ban Race Preferences," New York Times, January 26, 2007.
284. Peter Schmidt, "Election 2006: A Referendum on Race Preferences Divides Michigan," Chronicle of Higher Education, October 27, 2006, 21, http://chronicle.com/article/A-Referendum-on-Race/24828.
285. American Civil Rights Institute, http://www.acri.org/.
286. Williams, Constraint of Race, 298-309; J. Edward Kellough, Understanding Affi rmative Action (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2006), 111-15.
287. Adarand Constructors Inc. v. Federico Pena, Secretary of Transportation, 515 U.S. 200 (1995), 237.
288. Rogers M. Smith and Desmond S. King, "Barack Obama and the Future of American Racial Politics," Du Bois Review 6 (2009): 25-35.
289. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Charles Tien, and Richard Nadeau, "Obama's Missed Landslide: A Racial Cost?" PS: Political Science & Politics 43 (2010): 69-76.
290. Peter Wallsten, "In Virginia, Tackling Race Before It Tackles Obama," Los Angeles Times, October 5, 2008.
291. Barack Obama, "2004 Democratic National Convention Keynote Address," http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/convention2004/barack obama2004dnc.htm.
292. Sam Roberts, "Westchester Adds Housing to Desegregation Pact," New York Times, August 11, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/11/nyregion/11settle.html;
293. Dana Goldstein, "Shaking Up Suburbia," American Prospect, August 25, 2009, http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=shaking_up_suburbia.
294. John Caulfi eld, "New York's Westchester Count Yields to Pressure to Desegregate Its Affordable Housing," Builder 2009, August 10, 2009, http://www.builderonline.com/affordable-housing/new-yorks-westchester-county-yields-to-pressure-to-desegregate-itsaffordable-housing.aspx.
295. Howard Husock, "The Affordable-Housing Pact: A Flawed Remedy for Suburbs," Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, Journal News, August 30, 2009, http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/miarticle.htm?id=5239.
296. Gerald McKinstry, "With Landmark Housing Settlement, Many Questions Remain-Like Where Are the Units Going," Journal News-White Plains, NY, August 12, 2009
297. Sam Roberts, "Federal Monitor Rejects Westchester's Plan to Address Segregation with Fair Housing," New York Times, February 11, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/12/nyregion/12westchester.html
298. Ben S. Bernanke, "The Subprime Mortgage Market," Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, May 17, 2007, http://www.federalreserve.gov/news events/speech/bernanke20070517a.htm;
299. Ben S. Bernanke, "Mortgage Delinquencies and Foreclosures," Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, May 5, 2008, http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/Bernanke20080505a.htm
300. Ajamu Dillahunt, Brian Miller, Mike Prokosch, Jeannette Huezo, and Dedrick Muhammad, "State of the Dream 2010.
301. Michael Powell, "Blacks in Memphis Lose Decades of Economic Gains," New York Times, May 30, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/31/business/economy/31 memphis.html
302. Rivera et al., "State of the Dream 2008: Foreclosed," 45.
303. Michele Bachmann (R-Minn.), Testimony to House Financial Services Committee, "Hearing on Treasury Action on GSEs," September 25, 2008
304. Emily Heil and Elizabeth Brotherton, "Heard on the Hill: Finger-Pointing," Roll Call, September 26, 2008, http://www.rollcall.com/issues/54_40/hoh/28769-1.html
305. Michele Bachmann, Interview with Larry King, September 16, 2008, CNN.com, http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0809/16/lkl.01.html
306. Charles Krauthammer, "Catharsis, Then Common Sense," Washington Post, September 26, 2008, A23, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/25/AR2008092503600.html
307. Ann Coulter, "They Gave Your Mortgage to a Less Qualifi ed Minority," anncoulter. com, September 24, 2008, http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=275.
308. Helen Thompson, "The Political Origins of the Financial Crisis: The Domestic and International Politics of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac," Political Quarterly 80 (January-March 2009): 17-24.
309. U.S.A. ex rel Anti-Discrimination Center of Metro New York Inc. v. Westchester County, 25.
310. Douglas S. Massey, "Segregation and Stratifi cation: A Biosocial Perspective," Du Bois Review 1 (2004): 9, 10-11.
311. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996);
312. Desmond S. King, Separate and Unequal: African Americans and the US Federal Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 189;
313. John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29638
314. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 204.
315. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 51-52.
316. Gregory D. Squires, "Community Reinvestment: An Emerging Social Movement," in Gregory D. Squires, ed., From Redlining to Reinvestment: Community Responses to Urban Disinvestment (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 5; Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 54.
317. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 44-45.
318. American Presidency Project, 25839.
319. Brown et al., Whitewashing Race, 92-94.
320. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 62-63.
321. John R. Logan and Harvey L. Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007);
322. Harvey Molotch, "The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place," American Journal of Sociology 82 (September 1976): 309-32.
323. Charles M. Lamb, Housing Segregation in Suburban America since 1960: Presidential and Judicial Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
324. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 192-98;
325. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 46.
326. Kevin L. Yuill, Richard Nixon and the Rise of Affi rmative Action (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefi eld, 2006), 172.
327. Lamb, Housing Segregation, chap. 3; Chris Bonastia, "Hedging His Bets: Why Nixon Killed HUD's Desegregation Efforts," Social Science History 28 (2004): 26-33.
328. Peter H. Shuck, Diversity in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 228-29.
329. George Galster, "Racial Steering in Urban Housing Markets: A Review of the Audit Evidence," Review of Black Political Economy 18 (1990): 105-30;
330. Michael S. Barr, "Credit Where It Counts: The Community Reinvestment Act and Its Critics," New York University Law Review 80 (2005): 527-33.
331. Hugh Davis Graham, "The Surprising Career of Federal Fair Housing Law," Journal of Policy History 12 (2000): 215-32;
332. Nadine Cohodas, "Battle Lines Drawn Over New Enforcement Powers by HUD," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report 38, May 3, 1980, 1175-77.
333. Gordon H. Sellon Jr. and Deana VanNahmen, "The Securitization of Housing Finance," Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City Economic Review 14 (1988): 17-20, http://kansascityfed.org/PUBLICAT/ECONREV/EconRevArchive/1988/2q88sell.pdf.
334. Domhoff, "Ford Foundation in the Inner City," 11.
335. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 209-11.
336. Graham, "Surprising Career of Federal Fair Housing Law."
337. Macon Morehouse, "Fair-Housing Bill Approved by House Judiciary Committee," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report 46, April 30, 1988, 1159.
338. Nadine Cohodas, "Prognosis Good as Housing Bill Goes to Senate," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report 46, July 2, 1988
339. George C. Galster, "The Evolving Challenges of Fair Housing Since 1968:
340. Anthony D. Taibi, "Racial Justice in the Age of the Global Economy: Community Empowerment and Global Strategy," Duke Law Journal 44 (1995): 948-53.
341. Taibi, "Racial Justice," 953; National Association of Home Builders, "A Century of Progress," 8.
342. Charlie Savage, "Justice Dept. Fights Bias in Lending," New York Times, January 14, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/14/us/14justice.html
343. Kenneth R. Harney, "Obama Administration Adopts Get-Tough Stance on Mortgage Bias," Los Angeles Times, April 11, 2010, http://articles.latimes.com/2010/apr/11/business/la-fi-harney11-2010apr11/2.
344. David Mendell and Gary Washburn, "Race Shifts Seen in Remap Efforts: Leaders Struggle to Retain Wards," Chicago Tribune, October 14, 2001, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-14/news/0110140403_1_ward-map-political-power-black.
345. Barack Obama and Joe Biden: Creating Equal Opportunity and Justice for All," Barackobama.com, http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/issues/Fact_Sheet_Civil_Rights_and_Criminal_Justice_FINAL.pdf.
346. Abigail M. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? Affi rmative Action and Minority Voting Rights (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 227-31;
347. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: from the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 74.
348. Richard L. Berke, "G.O.P. Tries a Gambit with Voting Rights," New York Times, April 14, 1991, D1; Carol M. Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 205
349. Richard M. Valelly, The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 4.
350. David A. Bositis, Black Elected Offi cials (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, 2002), 5-6;
351. Kim Geron, Latino Political Power (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 7;
352. American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25839,
353. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 263.
354. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 186-93.
355. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 197;
356. David Michael Hudson, Along Racial Lines: Consequences of the 1965 Voting Rights Act (New York: Peter Lang, 1998), 82;
357. South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301, 306-7 (1966).
358. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 4.
359. American Presidency Project, 25841
360. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 203; Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? 31-37, 47; Hudson, Racial Lines, 82.
361. American Presidency Project, 25842
362. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? 70-73.
363. Hudson, Racial Lines, 110; Keyssar, Right to Vote, 265.
364. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? 50-53.
365. Valelly, Two Reconstructions, 204.
366. Hudson, Racial Lines, 109-16.
367. American Presidency Project, 25843, 29606.
368. Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980).
369. American Presidency Project, 25844, 29607.
370. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? 110-12.
371. Hudson, Racial Lines, 137.
372. Richard Reeves, President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005), 119.
373. Ronald W. Reagan, "Remarks at a White House Ceremony Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Week," September 15, 1982, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=42983.
374. Hudson, Racial Lines, 137-45.
375. David Lublin, The Paradox of Representation: Racial Gerrymandering and Minority Interests in Congress (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997)
376. Morgan J. Kousser, Colorblind Injustice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 13; Bositis, Black Elected Offi cials, 17.
377. Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests; Lublin, Paradox.
378. David T. Canon, Race, Redistricting and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 76-77.
379. Canon, Race, Redistricting and Representation, 75-76, 110.
380. Bernard Grofman and Lisa Handley, "Voting Rights in the 1990s," in Grofman, ed., Race and Redistricting, 72n7; Posner, "Post-1990 Redistrictings," 88-98.
381. Canon, Race, Redistricting and Representation, 73-77.
382. Lublin, Paradox, 113.
383. Moss, "Redrawn Districts Help GOP."
384. Lublin, Paradox, 112.
385. Matthew M., Schousen, David T. Canon, and Patrick J. Sellers, "Congressional Redistricting in North Carolina," in Grofman, ed., Race and Redistricting, 273-89.
386. Winnett W. Hagens, "The Politics of Race: The Virginia Redistricting Experience," in Grofman, ed., Race and Redistricting, 322-36.Burton, "Legislative and Congressional Districting," 290, 309-12.
387. Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests, 232; Lublin, Paradox, 125-29; Robert A. Holmes, "Reapportionment Strategies in the 1990s," in Grofman, ed., Race and Redistricting, 201-9, 216-28.
388. Richard L. Engstrom and Jason E. Kirksey, "Race and Representational Districting in Louisiana," in Grofman, ed, Race and Redistricting, 240-42;
389. Lublin, Paradox, 104-6, 111-12.
390. Engstrom and Kirksey, "Race and Representational Districting," 234-64.
391. Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests, 198; Lublin, Paradox, 32.
392. Lublin, Paradox, 112.
393. Morgan Kousser, "Reapportionment Wars: Party, Race, and Redistricting in the California, 1971-1992," in Grofman, Race and Redistricting, 166-74, 187.
394. Lublin, Paradox, 114; Donald Stokes, "Is There a Better Way to Redistrict?" in Grofman, Race and Redistricting, 359-66.
395. Alan Gartner, "New York City Redistricting: A View from Inside," in Grofman, Race and Redistricting, 371.
396. American Presidency Project, 25848
397. Charles S. Bullock and Ronald Keith Gaddie, "Good Intentions and Bad Social Science Meet in the Renewal of the Voting Rights Act," Georgetown Journal of Law and Public Policy 5 (2007): 1-27.
398. Carl Hulse, "Rebellion Stalls Extension of Voting Act," New York Times, June 22, 2006, A-23.
399. Raymond Hernandez, "After Challenges, House Approves Renewal of Voting Act," New York Times, July 14, 2006, A13
400. Barack Obama, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006), 92.
401. Elizabeth Green, "Obama Open to Private School Vouchers," New York Sun, February 15, 2008, http://www.nysun.com/national/obama-open-to-private-school-vouchers/71403/.
402. Jay P. Greene, "The Union War on Charter Schools," Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123985052084823887.html
403. Milton Friedman, "The Role of Government in Education," in Economics and the Public Interest, ed. Robert A. Solow (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955).
404. J. Harvie Wilkinson III, From Brown to Bakke: The Supreme Court and School Integration, 1954-1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 98-100.
405. American Presidency Project, 25840
406. Charles T. Clotfelter, "Private Schools, Segregation, and the Southern States," Peabody Journal of Education 79 (2004): 74-97.
407. John E. Chubb and Terry M. Moe, Politics, Markets and America's Schools (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1990), 126-27.
408. David L. Leal, "Latinos and School Vouchers: Testing the 'Minority Support' Hypothesis," Social Science Quarterly 85 (2004): 1227-28;
409. Matthew I. Pinzur, "Looking for a Better Choice," Hispanic 16 (2003): 28.
410. R. Kenneth Godwin and Frank R. Kemerer, School Choice Tradeoffs (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 228-33;
411. Lance Fusarelli, The Political Dynamics of School Choice (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 4.
412. Godwin and Kemerer, School Choice, 120-21, 231;
413. Jeffrey R. Henig, Richard C. Hula, Marion Orr, and Desiree S. Pedescleaux, The Color of School Reform (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 6-7.
414. Melissa Nobles, Shades of Citizenship: Race and Census in Modern Politics (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000);
415. Matthew C. Snipp, "Racial Measurement in the American Census: Past Practices and Implications," Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003): 563-88;
416. Kim M. Williams, Mark One or More: Civil Rights in Multiracial America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 22-29;
417. Jennifer L. Hochschild and Brenna Marea Powell, "Racial Reorganization and the United States Census, 1850-1930:
418. Mulattoes, Half-Breeds, Mixed Parentage, Hindoos, and the Mexican Race," Studies in American Political Development 22 (2008): 62-63.
419. Stetson Kennedy, Jim Crow Guide: The Way It Was (Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University Press, 1990), 48-50;
420. Margo J. Anderson and Stephen E. Fienberg, Who Counts? The Politics of Census-Taking in Contemporary America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999).
421. Sharon M. Lee, Using the New Racial Categories in the 2000 Census (Annie E. Casey Foundation and Population Reference Bureau, 2001), 5.
422. Kim M. Williams, "Multiracialism and the Civil Rights Future," Daedalus 134.1 (2005): 53-60; Williams, Mark One or More, 86.
423. Williams, Mark One or More, 15.
424. Williams, "Multiracialism," 54-54.
425. David A. Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 3.
426. Peter H. Schuck, Diversity in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 146.
427. Clara E. Rodriquez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
428. Williams, "Multiracialism," 56-57.
429. Steven A. Holmes, "Panel Balks at Multiracial Census Category," New York Times, July 9, 1997, http://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/09/us/panel-balks-at-multiracialcensus-category.html
430. Steven A. Holmes, "Gingrich Outlines Plan on Race Relations," New York Times, June 19, 1997, http://www.nytimes.com/1997/06/19/us/gingrich-outlines-planon-race-relations.html
431. Williams, Mark One or More, 114.
432. Rebecca Chiyoko King, "Racialization, Recognition, and Rights: Lumping and Splitting Multiracial Asian Americans in the 2000 Census," Journal of Asian American Studies 3 (2000): 204-5;
433. Williams, "Multiracialism," 59; Williams, Mark One or More, 74; Hochschild and Burch, "Purposes," 26-28.
434. Williams, Mark One or More, 121-31.
435. Katharine Q. Seelye, "Obama Wades into a Volatile Racial Issue," New York Times, July 23, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/23/us/23race.html
436. Barack Obama and Joe Biden: Creating Equal Opportunity and Justice for All," Barackobama.com, http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/issues/Fact_Sheet_Civil_Rights_and_Criminal_Justice_FINAL.pdf.
437. Peter H. Schuck, Diversity in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 146.
438. Peter Kerr, "Extra-Potent Cocaine: Use Rising Sharply Among Teen-Agers," New York Times, March 20, 1986, http://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/20/nyregion/extra-potentcocaine-use-rising-sharply-among-teenagers.html
439. Doris Marie Provine, Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 112.
440. See, e.g., Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
441. Marie Gottschalk, The Prison and the Gallows (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 13-16.
442. Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren (New York: Routledge, 2008), 238.
443. Richard Hofstadter and Beatrice K. Hofstadter, eds., Great Issues in American History, vol. 2, From Reconstruction the Present Day, 1864-1981, rev. ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1982), 502.
444. American Presidency Project, 25840.
445. Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 40-43, 85-88.
446. Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 59; Weaver, "Frontlash," 244-46.
447. Beckett, Making Crime Pay, 32, 85.
448. Murakawa, "Carceral Crisis," 250-51.
449. Weaver, "Frontlash," 247-48.
450. Thomas M. Hilbink, "Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968," Enotes.com, http://www.enotes.com/major-acts-congress/omnibus-crime-control-safestreets-act.
451. Kevin B. Smith, "The Politics of Punishment: Evaluating Political Explanations of Incarceration Rates," Journal of Politics 66 (2004): 925-38.
452. Katherine Beckett and Theodore Sasson, The Politics of Injustice: Crime and Punishment in America, 2nd ed. (London: Sage, 2004), 5.
453. Lawrence D. Bobo and Victor Thompson, "Unfair by Design: The War on Drugs, Race, and the Legitimacy of the Criminal Justice System," Social Research 73 (2006): 452-52;
454. Marie Gottschalk, "Hiding in Plain Sight: American Politics and the Carceral State," Annual Review of Political Science 11 (2008): 236.
455. Lawrence D. Bobo and Devon Johnson, "A Taste for Punishment: Black and White Americans' Views on the Death Penalty and the War on Drugs," Du Bois Review 1 (2004): 151-80.
456. Beckett, Making Crime Pay, 95-96.
457. Murakawa, "Electing to Punish," 19.
458. Lord David James George Hennessy Windlesham, Politics, Punishment, and Populism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 22-23.
459. Provine, Unequal Under Law, 113-17.
460. Murakawa, "Electing to Punish," 20-21.
461. McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987).
462. Brendan O'Connor, "Policies, Principles, and Polls: Bill Clinton's Third Way Welfare Politics, 1992-1996," Australian Journal of Politics and History 48 (2002): 401.
463. Franklin E. Zimring, "Imprisonment Rates and the New Politics of Criminal Punishment," Punishment and Society 3 (2001): 162, http://pun.sagepub.com/content/3/1/161.short.
464. Beckett and Sasson, Politics of Injustice, 68-70.
465. Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U.S. 275 (2001).
466. Alexander, New Jim Crow, 134-35.
467. Hayden v. Pataki, 449 F. 3d 305 (2006).
468. Beckett and Sasson, Politics of Injustice, 70-71.
469. Western, Punishment and Inequality, 50; Gottschalk, "Hiding," 249-51.
470. Eric V. Meeks, Border Citizens: The Making of Indians, Mexicans, and Anglos in Arizona (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), 244-45;
471. David Jackson, "Obama And Brewer Hold Arizona Immigration Summit," USA Today, June 3, 2010, http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2010/06/obama-and-brewer-hold-arizona-immigration-summit/1.
472. Randal C. Archibold, "Judge Blocks Arizona's Immigration Law," New York Times, July 28, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/us/29arizona.html
473. Tichenor, 8; Zolberg, Nation by Design, 19.
474. James G. Gimpel and James R. Edwards, The Congressional Politics of Immigration Reform (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995), 46.
475. Nicole Santa Cruz, "Arizona Bill Targeting Ethnic Studies Signed into Law," Los Angeles Times, May 12, 2010, http://articles.latimes.com/2010/may/12/nation/la-na-ethnic-studies-20100512.
476. Gerald L. Neuman, Strangers to the Constitution: Immigrants, Borders, and Fundamental Law (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 20-43.
477. Desmond S. King and Rogers M. Smith, "Racial Orders in American Political Development," American Political Science Review 99 (2005): 88-89;
478. Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 67-92.
479. David M. Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 72-73.
480. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 324, 329-32.
481. Reimers, Still the Golden Door, 78-81.
482. American Presidency Project, 25841, 29604.
483. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 335-39.
484. American Presidency Project, 25842, 29605.
485. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 252-55.
486. American Presidency Project, 29607, 29608, 29609, and 29610.
487. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 359.
488. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 254.
489. American Presidency Project, 25844.
490. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 256-57.
491. Gimpel and Edwards, Congressional Politics, 178; Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 256.
492. American Presidency Project, 25845, 25846.
493. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 261.
494. Gimpel and Edwards, Congressional Politics, 177-80; Zolberg, Nation by Design, 369-70.
495. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 371.
496. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 275-77;
497. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 382-86.
498. American Presidency Project, 25847, 29610.
499. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 404-8.
500. Gimpel and Edwards, Congressional Politics, 212-43.
501. American Presidency Project, 29611
502. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 386-87, 395.
503. Audrey Singer, "Welfare Reform and Immigrants: A Policy Review," 2004, 26, Brookings, http://www.brookings.edu/reports/2004/05demographics_singer.aspx.
504. VisaLaw.com-The Immigration Law Portal, "IIRIRA 96-A Summary of the New Immigration Bill," http://www.visalaw.com/96nov/3nov96.html
505. Gimpel and Edwards, Congressional Politics, 281-88;
506. Tichenor, Dividing Lines, 283-85;
507. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 417-19.
508. Neil Gotanda, "A Critique of 'Our Constitution is Color-Blind,'" Stanford Law Review 44 (1991): 1-68;
509. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 113-36;
510. Nolan McCarty, Keith T. Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 11.
511. Khalilah L. Brown-Dean, "Permanent Outsiders: Felon Disenfranchisement and the Breakdown of Black Politics," National Political Science Review 11 (2007): 103-20
512. Anthony S. Chen, The Fifth Freedom: Jobs, Politics, and Civil Rights in the United States, 1941-1972 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009);
513. Cathy J. Cohen, The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
514. Cathy J. Cohen, "From Kanye West to Barack Obama: Black Youth, the State and Political Alienation," in The Unsustainable American State, ed. Lawrence Jacobs and Desmond King (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 255-99;
515. Michael Dawson, Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2001);
516. Claire Jean Kim, "Imagining Race and Nation in Multiculturalist America," Ethnic and Racial Studies 27 (2004): 987-1005;
517. Michael Goldfi eld, The Color of Politics: Race and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Free Press, 1997);
518. Frederick C. Harris, Valeria Sinclair-Chapman, and Brian D. McKenzie, Countervailing Forces in African-American Civic Activism, 1973-1994 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006);
519. Jennifer Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996);
520. Julie Novkov, Racial Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008), 5-9;
521. Kimberley S. Johnson, "Jim CrowReform and the Democratization of the South," in Race and American Political Development, ed. Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren (New York: Routledge, 2008), 155-79.
522. Rogers M. Smith and Desmond S. King, "Barack Obama and the Future of American Racial Politics," Du Bois Review 6 (2009): 33-35.
523. McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal, Polarized America, 7.
524. Joseph L. Lowndes, From the New Deal to the New Right: Race and theSouthern Origins of Modern Conservatism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), esp. 157-62.
525. Southern Origins of Modern Conservatism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), esp. 157-62.
526. U.S. Census Bureau, "Table 10. Resident Population by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Single Years of Age: 2008," http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0010.pdf.
527. James E. Ryan, Five Miles Away, a World Apart: One City, Two Schools and the Story of Educational Opportunity in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
528. Monique W. Morris, "Discrimination and Mortgage Lending in America," National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, March 2009, http://naacp.3cdn.net/4ca760b774f81317c4_klm6i6yxg.pdf.
529. Devah Pager, "The 'Stickiness' of Race in an Era of Mass Incarceration" (paper presented at the conference "Racial Inequality in a Post-Racial World?" Russell Sage Foundation, May 21-22, 2010), 1, 13-14.
530. American Presidency Project, 25845.
531. Peter H. Schuck, Diversity in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 163-69, 198;
532. Daniel Sabbagh, Equality and Transparency: A Strategic Perspective on Affi rmative Action in American Law (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 139.
533. Hochschild, "Affi rmative Action as Culture War," 357-58.
534. Obama, Dreams from My Father, 294.
535. Rogers M. Smith, Stories of Peoplehood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
536. Schuck, Diversity in America, 332-33.
537. Tesler and Sears, Obama's Race; Deborah E. Ward, The White Welfare State: The Racialization of US Welfare Policy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005).
538. Ira Katznelson, When Affi rmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005);
539. Donald R. Kinder and Lynn M. Sanders, Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996);
540. Robert C. Lieberman, Shaping Race Policy: The United States in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005);
541. Paula D. McClain and Joseph Stewart Jr.,"Can We All Get Along?" Racial and Ethnic Minorities in American Politics, 5th ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2009);
542. Sanford F. Schram, "Contextualizing Racial Disparities in American Welfare Reform: Toward a New Poverty Research," Perspectives on Politics 3 (2005): 253-68;
543. Cathy J. Cohen, "From Kanye West to Barack Obama: Black Youth, the State and Political Alienation," in The Unsustainable American State, ed. Lawrence Jacobs and Desmond King (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 255-99;
544. Michael Dawson, Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2001);
545. Paul Frymer, Black and Blue: African Americans, the Labor Movement, and the Decline of the Democratic Party (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008);