"The Hitlerian rule of quotas": Racial conservatism and the politics of fair employment legislation in New York State, 1941-1945

Journal of American History

Volumn 92, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 1238-1264

  Chen, Anthony S ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547187884     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4485890     Document Type: Review

References (226)

1. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138 before the Assembly Ways and Means Committee and Senate Finance Committee (Albany, 1945), 25-26 (Kheel Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.);
2. New York Times, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 15.
3. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138; New York Times, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 15.
4. On Robert Moses, see Robert A. Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York, 1974).
5. On the congressional clash over Title VII, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960-1972 (New York, 1990), 106-10, 150;
6. John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago, 1996);
7. and Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (New York, 2004).
8. Richard N. Smith, Thomas Dewey and His Times (New York, 1982), 443-48, esp. 446;
9. Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933-1972 (Baton Rouge, 1997), 111.
10. See also Sidney A. Fine, "Expanding the Frontiers of Civil Rights": Michigan, 1948-1968 (Detroit, 2000);
11. Eric Ledell Smith and Kenneth C. Wolensky, "A Novel Public Policy: Pennsylvania's Fair Employment Practices Act of 1955," Pennsylvania History, 69 (Fall 2002), 489-523;
12. William J. Collins, "The Political Economy of State-Level Fair Employment Laws, 1940-1964," Explorations in Economic History, 40 (Jan. 2003), 24-51;
13. Duane Lockard, Toward Equal Opportunity: A Study of State and Local Antidiscrimination Laws (New York, 1968);
14. Anthony S. Chen, "Republican Elites, Employer Mobilization, and the Passage of State Fair Employment Practices Legislation in the North, 1945-1964," working paper no. 2004-004, 2004, Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy 〈http://www.ford-school.umich.edu/research/working_papers. php〉 (Oct. 27, 2005).
15. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York, 1997);
16. Alan Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1984);
17. Graham, Civil Rights Era;
18. Skrentny, Ironies of Affirmative Action;
19. Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness;
20. Thomas B. Edsall and Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1991);
21. Edward G. Carmines and James A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton, 1989).
22. Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983);
23. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, 2003);
24. Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (Cambridge, Mass., forthcoming);
25. Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism," Journal of American History, 82 (Sept. 1995), esp. 551-52;
26. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), esp. 268.
27. See also Thomas J. Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945-1969," Journal of American History, 91 (June 2004), 145-73.
28. For a valuable critique of consensus historiography, see Gary Gerstle, "Race and the Myth of the Liberal Consensus," Journal of American History, ibid., 82 (Sept. 1995), 579-86.
29. My larger project aims to offer a new explanation for the origins of affirmative action policies in employment, from the 1940s to the 1970s. It traces how conservative resistance to the passage of enforceable fair employment practices (FEP) legislation frustrated liberal hopes of creating a centralized regulatory system that relied on administrative agencies to enforce equal treatment of individuals in employment. The gradual defeat of liberal hopes paved the way for a fragmented court-based system of which affirmative action forms a small but controversial part. See Anthony S. Chen, "From Fair Employment to Equal Employment Opportunity and Beyond: Affirmative Action and the Politics of Civil Rights in the New Deal Order, 1941-1972" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2002).
30. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, 2000);
31. Philip A. Klinkner and Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago, 1999), 136-201;
32. Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, 2001), 187-237;
33. John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture during World War II (New York, 1976), 147-220;
34. Richard Primus, The American Language of Rights (New York, 1999), 177-233.
35. James G. Thompson quoted in Ronald Takaki, Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II (Boston, 2000), 20;
36. New York Times, Jan. 7, 1940, p. 29;
37. Richard M. Dalfiume, "The 'Forgotten' Years of the Negro Revolution," Journal of American History, 55 (June 1968), 90-106;
38. Harvard Sitkoff, "Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War," Journal of American History, ibid., 58 (Dec. 1971), 661-81;
39. Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History, ibid., 75 (Dec. 1988), 786-811.
40. On the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC), see Merl E. Reed, Seedtime for the Modern Civil Rights Movement: The President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice, 1941-1946 (Baton Rouge, 1991);
41. John H. Bracey Jr. and August Meier, "Allies or Adversaries? The NAACP, A. Philip Randolph, and the 1941 March on Washington," Georgia Historical Quarterly, 75 (Spring 1991), 1-17;
42. and Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State during World War II (New York, 2001), 1-132.
43. Karl Drew Hartzell, The Empire State at War. World War II (New York, 1949), 67, 88;
44. New York Amsterdam News, March 1, 1941, pp. 1, 17;
45. New York Amsterdam News, ibid., March 8, 1941, pp. 1, 24;
46. New York Times, March 30, 1941, p. 39;
47. New York State War Council Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Report: March 1941 to July 1944 (Albany, 1944), 3-21.
48. in Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, part 13, series A, ed. John Bracey Jr. and August Meier (microfilm, 21 reels, University Publications of America, 1992), reel 1, frames 161-79;
49. Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Minutes, April 16, 1941, folder 28, box 2, Frieda S. Miller Papers (Schlesinger Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.); Frieda S. Miller to Defense Employers, Sept. 10, 1941, Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, part 13, series A, ibid.; Max Goldfrank to Herbert H. Lehman, April 10, 1941, Chapter 478, 1941, Bill Jacket Collection (New York State Library, Albany).
50. John A. Davis, How Management Can Integrate Negroes in War Industries (Albany, 1942);
51. Committee on Discrimination in Employment, "Report for the Month of December 1942," folder 28, box 2, Miller Papers;
52. New York Times, Dec. 28, 1942, p. 18;
53. Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Report: March 1941 to July 1944, 28, in Papers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, part 13, series A, ed. Bracey and Meier, reel 1, frame 186; Associated Industries of New York State, pamphlet [1945], folder 54: Associated Industries of New York State, box 207, series 4, Thomas E. Dewey Papers (Department of Rare Books, Special Books, and Preservation, University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.); A. E. Crockett to Miller, Nov. 1, 1941, folder 28, box 2, Miller Papers.
54. Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Minutes, Jan. 13, 1942, folder 28, box 2, Miller Papers; Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Report: March 1941 to July 1944, 22, 49-76;
55. Frieda S. Miller, memorandum [April 1942], Chapter 677, 1942, Bill Jacket Collection;
56. Channing H. Tobias to Lehman, May 7, 1942, ibid.;
57. New York Times, May 8, 1942, p. 19;
58. Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Report: March 1941 to July 1944, 24. The figure for complaints investigated in 1942 covers March-December, not the whole year.
59. New York Times, Feb. 22, 1935, p. 14;
60. New York Times, ibid., May 15, 1937, p. 6;
61. Congressional Record, 78 Cong., 2 sess., Jan. 17, 1944, p. 297;
62. HR 3986, 78 Cong., 2 sess. (Jan. 17, 1944), in U.S. Congress, House and Senate Bills and Resolutions (microfiche, Congressional Information Service). The introduction of the term "affirmative action" into national political discourse is usually traced to a 1961 executive order by John F. Kennedy. See Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 60-61.
63. New York Times, Oct. 5, 1942, p. 14;
64. New York Times, ibid., Aug. 5, 1943, p. 36;
65. New York Times, ibid., Aug. 6, 1943, p. 14;
66. Alvin S. Johnson to Paul E. Lockwood, Aug. 23, 1943, folder 1, box 20, Alvin S. Johnson Papers (Archives and Special Collections, University of Nebraska, Lincoln); Committee on Discrimination in Employment, Report: March 1941 to July 1944, 87-98;
67. New York Times, March 10, 1944, p. 32;
68. New York Times, ibid., March 18, 1944, p. 1;
69. New York Times, ibid., March 26, 1944, p. 44;
70. New York Times, ibid., March 30, 1944, p. 20;
71. New York Amsterdam News, March 25, 1944, p. 8A.
72. Robert C. Weaver, Negro Labor (New York, 1946), 78-96, esp. 92;
73. New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Report of the New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination (Albany, 1945), 22.
74. But see William J. Collins, "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production," American Economic Review, 91 (March 2001), 272-86.
75. "Ives, Irving McNeil," available at American National Biography Online; New York Times, Feb. 19, 1930, p. 14;
76. New York Times, ibid., Jan. 26, 1940, p. 1.
77. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944);
78. New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination, "Minutes," June 19, 1944, pp. 2-5, esp. 4, 5 (New York State Library);
79. "Minutes," ibid., Aug. 7, 1944, p. 4;
80. "Minutes," ibid., Sept. 11, 1944;
81. New York Times, June 20, 1944, p. 34.
82. On the railroad brotherhoods, see Eric Arnesen, Brotherhoods of Color: Black Railroad Workers and the Struggle for Equality (Cambridge, Mass., 2001).
83. Johnson to Irving M. Ives, July 10, 1944, folder: Discrimination - Employment Background Material, box 181, Irving M. Ives Papers (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University); Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Public Hearings Starting November 27, 1944 (3 vols., Albany, 1944) (New York State Library);
84. New York Times, Nov. 23, 1944, p. 29;
85. New York Times, ibid., Nov. 28, 1944, p. 21;
86. New York Times, ibid., Dec. 4, 1944, p. 15;
87. New York Times, ibid., Dec. 5, 1944, p. 24.
88. Congressional Record, 78 Cong., 2 sess., May 26, 1944, pp. 5027, 5040-41, 5049, and esp. 5027, 5029, 5030, and 5045-46;
89. New York Times, Feb. 28, 1944, p. 12;
90. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 29, 1944, p. 34;
91. New York Times, ibid., May 25, 1944, p. 7;
92. New York Times, ibid., May 27, 1944, pp. 8, 18;
93. New York Times, ibid., June 11, 1944, p. 5;
94. New York Times, ibid., June 21, 1944, pp. 11, 20;
95. Washington Post, Feb. 29, 1944, p. 3.
96. Washington Post, ibid., March 7, 1944, p. 8.
97. New York Times, Dec. 5, 1944, 24;
98. Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Public Hearings Starting November 27, 1944, I, 442, 288-305, esp. 298.
99. Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Public Hearings Starting November 27, 1944, I, 107, 330, 339, III, 1265-83, esp. 1266;
100. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 110 (1943).
101. Myrdal, American Dilemma, xlvii;
102. Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Public Hearings Starting November 27, 1944, I, 5, 60, 109, 184, 232, 452, II, 656-57;
103. New York Times, Dec. 4, 1944, 15;
104. New York Times, ibid., Dec. 5, 1944, p. 24
105. Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Report of the New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination, 80-81.
106. Assembly Introductory 833, Jan. 30, 1945, box 182, Ives Papers; New York Times, Jan. 29, 1945, p. 1;
107. PM, Jan. 29, 1945, p. 11;
108. New York Amsterdam News, Feb. 3, 1945, p. 1;
109. Temporary Commission against Discrimination, Report of the New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination, 29.
110. Irving M. Ives, "Why I Favor a Permanent State Commission against Discrimination as Recommended by the New York State Temporary Commission against Discrimination," folder: January 29, 1945 Ives Statement in Chamber, box 188, Ives Papers;
111. New York Times, Jan. 29, 1945, p. 1.
112. New York Times, Feb. 1, 1945, p. 15;
113. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 12, 1945, p. 32;
114. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 15, 1945, p. 17;
115. PM, Feb. 12, 1945, p. 9; Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York to Members of the Senate and Assembly, Feb. 10, 1945, box 1-5, Charles C. Burlingham Papers (Harvard Law School Library, Harvard University).
116. New York Times, Oct. 5, 1937, p. 6;
117. New York Times, ibid., June 8, 1959, pg. 1;
118. Washington Post, June 10, 1959, p. A16;
119. Burlingham to Wardwell, Jan. 9, 1945, box 1-4, Burlingham Papers. See also George Martin, CCB: The Life and Century of Charles C. Burlingham, New York's First Citizen, 1858-1959 (New York, 2005).
120. Burlingham to Mr. and Mrs. John Kingbury, Feb. 13, 1945, box 1-4, Burlingham Papers; New York Times, Feb. 13, 1945, p. 22.
121. New York Times, Feb. 15, 1945, p. 18;
122. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 20, 1945, p. 18;
123. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 21, 1945, p. 18.
124. Wall Street Journal, Feb. 9, 1945, p. 6;
125. New York Times, Feb. 28, 1945, p. 20.
126. John S. Mearns, ed., The New York Red Book: 1945 (Albany, 1945), 46, 110;
127. New York Times, Feb. 8, 1945, p. 14;
128. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 14, 1945, pp. 1, 15;
129. PM, Feb. 14, 1945, p. 12;
130. PM, ibid., Feb. 18, 1945, p. 12;
131. New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 14, 1945, pp. 1, 16;
132. "Anti-Discrimination Bill Faces Upstate Opposition," New York Post, Feb. 7, 1945;
133. New York Post, ibid., Feb. 13, 1945, p. 5;
134. New York Post, ibid., Feb. 15, 1945;
135. Monitor, 31 (Jan. 1945), 6-7, series 7, Records of the Associated Industries of New York State (Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany);
136. Board of Directors, Associated Industries of New York State, Minutes, Nov. 28, 1945, series 1, Monitor, ibid.
137. "Let's Proceed Slowly on This Subject," Niagara Falls Gazette, Feb. 19, 1945.
138. in Thomas E. Dewey, Scrapbooks [1935-1954] (microfilm: roll 32) (Rhees Library, University of Rochester);
139. "Upstate G.O.P. May Oppose Racial Bill: Majority Leader Ives Issues Statement Urging Measure - C.I.O. Favors Proposal," Watertown Times, Feb. 13, 1945, ibid.;
140. "Albany Is Stirred by Racial Measure: Upstate Republicans Fighting Bill Resent Dictation on Those They Can Employ," Watertown Times, Feb. 16, 1945, ibid.
141. See also Newburgh News, Feb. 7, 1945, ibid.;
142. "Discrimination Bill Draws Criticism: G.O.P. Assemblyman Says It Would Create More Hatred," Schenectady Union Star, Feb. 10, 1945, ibid.;
143. "Racial Bill Conference to Be Held: G.O.P. Assemblymen Are Asked to Parley on Ives Plan," Binghamton Press, Feb. 10, 1945, ibid.;
144. "The New Volstead Act," Troy Morning Record, Feb. 22, 1945, ibid.;
145. "Go Slow on This So-Called Anti-Discrimination Law," Ballston Journal, Feb. 22, 1945, ibid.;
146. and "Anti-Discrimination Bill is Clumsy, Dangerous," Ogdensburg N. Y. Journal, Feb. 26, 1945, ibid.
147. For notable exceptions, see "An Equal Chance to Work," Stamford Mirror Recorder, Feb. 22, 1945, ibid.;
148. and "The Anti-Discrimination Experiment," Ithaca Journal, Feb. 26, 1945, ibid.
149. On the partisan allegiances of the black electorate, see Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton, 1983);
150. and Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America (Princeton, 1999).
151. Garth A. Shoemaker to Dewey, June 25, 1945, folder 3: 1945 Discrimination Commission, box 200, series 4, Dewey Papers; W. H. Kieser to Dewey, April 18, 1945, folder 47: Anti-Discrimination Bill, January-June, box 219, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid.;
152. Roy M. Mason to Dewey, March 12, 1945, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid. See also Marguerite D. Troupe to Ives, Feb. 5, 1945, folder: Correspondence, I-P 1945, box 175, Ives Papers.
153. R. L. R. Parker to Dewey, June 25, 1945, folder 2: 1945 Discrimination Bill, July-December, box 200, series 4, Dewey Papers; M. Patterson to Dewey, June 21, 1945, folder 47: Anti-Discrimination Bill, January-June, box 219, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid.;
154. Lillian G. Morrisey to Dewey, March 10, 1945, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid.;
155. New Yorker to Dewey, May 3, 1945, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid.;
156. E. Kendall Gillett to Dewey, Feb. 19, 1945, Paul Frymer, Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America, ibid.
157. Press Release [from Thomas E. Dewey's office], Feb. 16, 1945, folder 3: 1945 Discrimination Commission, box 220, series 4, Dewey Papers; New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 19, 1945, p. 16;
158. New York Amsterdam News, Feb. 10, 1945, pp. 1, 12B;
159. PM, Feb. 15, 1945, p. 11;
160. New York Times, Feb. 14, 1945, pp. 1, 15;
161. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 16, 1945, p. 21;
162. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 17, 1945, p. 26;
163. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 18, 1945, sec. IV, p. 10;
164. New York Post, Feb. 16, 1945, p. 5.
165. On PM, see Paul Milkman, PM: A New Deal in Journalism, 1940-1948 (New Brunswick, 1997).
166. New York Amsterdam News, Feb. 24, 1945, p. 1;
167. PM Feb. 1, 1945;
168. Albany Times-Union, Feb. 21, 1945;
169. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138, 5-6, 13-14, 35-37.
170. Robert Moses quoted his own 1938 statement in his 1945 letter to Frederic Bontecou. Robert Moses to Frederic Bontecou, Feb. 17, 1945, folder: Legislation 1945, box 25, Robert Moses Papers (Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.); Congressional Record, 79 Cong., 1 sess., Feb. 5, 1945, p. 782;
171. PM, Feb. 6, 1945, p. 10;
172. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138, 25-26;
173. New York Times, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 15;
174. New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 30.
175. Smith noted that Moses "feared quotas'" but did not cite the Bontecou letter or the hearing transcripts in his notes. See Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times, 446, 662-63.
176. On anti-Jewish quotas at the pinnacle of the Ivy League, see Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (New York, 2005), esp. 87.
177. New York Times, Feb. 7, 1945, p. 19;
178. PM, Jan. 30, 1945, p. 12;
179. New York Times, Feb. 8, 1945, pp. 21, 17;
180. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 9, 1945, p. 32;
181. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 10, 1945, p. 24;
182. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 11, 1945, p. 31;
183. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 13, 1945, p. 19;
184. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 27, 1945, p. 17;
185. New York Post, Feb. 13, 1945, p. 21.
186. Moses to Bontecou, Feb. 17, 1945, folder: Legislation 1945, box 25, Moses Papers; Vivian Schatz to Moses, July 26, 1945, New York Post, ibid.;
187. William F. Buckley Jr., "Rabble-Rouser," New Yorker, March 1, 2004, pp. 46-53;
188. New York Amsterdam News, May 9, 1942;
189. Albany Times Union, Feb. 27, 1945;
190. Troy Times Record, Feb. 27, 1945.
191. On Pegler, see David Witwer, "Westbrook Pegler and the Anti-union Movement," Journal of American History, 92 (Sept. 2005), 527-52.
192. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138, 62-63;
193. New York Times, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 15;
194. New York Amsterdam News, Feb. 24, 1945, pp. 1, 12B.
195. On Fiorello La Guardia's stance on civil rights, see Dominic J. Capeci, "From Different Liberal Perspectives: Fiorello H. La Guardia, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., and Civil Rights in New York City, 1941-43," Journal of Negro History, 62 (April 1977), 160-73.
196. Hearing on Assembly Introductory 883 and Assembly Print 1138, 35-42;
197. New York Times, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 15;
198. PM, Feb. 21, 1945;
199. New York Herald-Tribune, Feb. 21, 1945, pp. 1, 30;
200. New York Post, Feb. 21, 1945, p. 5;
201. Smith, Thomas E. Dewey and His Times, 447.
202. New York Times, Feb. 22, 1945, pp. 1, 24;
203. New York Times, ibid., Feb. 28, 1945, p. 1;
204. New York Times, ibid., March 6, 1945, p. 1;
205. New York State Bar Association to His Excellency, the Governor of the State of New York, and Members of the Legislature, Feb. 26, 1945, box 1-6, Burlingham Papers; Journal of the New York State Assembly, 168 sess., Feb. 28, 1945, p. 880;
206. Journal of the New York State Senate, 168 sess., March 5, 1945, p. 751.
207. U.S. Census Bureau, County Data Book (Washington, 1947), 272, 276-77;
208. Mearns, ed., New York Red Book: 1945, 45-46, 106-10, 565-82;
209. Journal of the New York State Assembly, 168 sess., Feb. 28, 1945, p. 880;
210. Journal of the New York State Senate, 168 sess., March 5, 1945, p. 751.
211. Frederic R. Coudert Jr. to Moses, Feb. 23, 1945, folder: Legislation 1945, box 25, Moses Papers; New York Herald Tribune, Feb. 22, 1945, p. 24;
212. Wall Street Journal, March 13, 1945, p. 6;
213. Smith, Thomas Dewey and His Times, 447.
214. Robert P. Lane to Burlingham, Feb. 21, 1945, box 1-6, Burlingham Papers.
215. Otto F. Christenson to Minnesota League of Women Voters, Nov. 21, 1949 (Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.); Ohio Committee for Fair Employment Practice, "Some Questions and Answers on FEPC" [1950], folder 1, container 1, Records of the Ohio Committee for Fair Employment Practice Legislation (Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio); "Committee Hearings on FEPC," April 18, 1951, folder 27, container 2, ibid.;
216. State Council for a Pennsylvania Fair Employment Practices Committee, "Business Looks Ahead to Fair Employment Practices" [1949], General Pamphlet Collection (Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia, Penn.). For editorial and opinion pieces from a 1951 battle over FEP legislation, see Colorado Committee for Equal Employment Opportunities, Taking Stock: A Final Report on the Campaign for a Fair Employment Practices Law for Colorado (Denver, [probably 1951]), 67-76.
217. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 106-10, 150;
218. Skrentny, Ironies of Affirmative Action, 177-221, esp. 209;
219. Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness;
220. Edsall and Edsall, Chain Reaction, 145, 165, 172-97;
221. Carmines and Stimson, Issue Evolution, 190-91.
222. Herbert Hill, "Twenty Years of State Fair Employment Practice Commissions: A Critical Analysis with Recommendations," Buffalo Law Review, 14 (Fall 1964), 22-69.
223. For the most sophisticated econometric analysis, see William J. Collins, "The Labor Market Impact of State-Level Anti-Discrimination Laws, 1940-1960," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 56 (Jan. 2003), 244-72.
224. For Louis Brandeis's metaphor, see New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262, 311 (1932).
225. borrow the metaphor of incubation from Thomas J. Sugrue, "All Politics Is Local: The Persistence of Localism in Twentieth-Century America," in The Democratic Experiment, ed. Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian E. Zelizer (Princeton, 2003), 301-26, esp. 312.
226. On white working-class recemment against affirmative action, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'Do Whites Have Rights?' White Detroit Policemen and 'Reverse Discrimination' Protests in the 1970s," Journal of American History, 91 (Dec. 2004), 932-60.