Mitigating amphibian disease: Strategies to maintain wild populations and control chytridiomycosis

Frontiers in Zoology

Volumn 8, Issue , 2011, Pages

  Woodhams, Douglas C ^a,b   Bosch, Jaime ^c   Briggs, Cheryl J ^d   Cashins, Scott ^e   Davis, Leyla R ^a   Lauer, Antje ^f   Muths, Erin ^g   Puschendorf, Robert ^e   Schmidt, Benedikt R ^a,h   Sheafor, Brandon ⁱ   Voyles, Jamie ^j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b SMITHSONIAN TROPICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Panama)

^c MUSEO NACIONAL DE CIENCIAS NATURALES   (Spain)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^f CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g FORT COLLINS SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^h KARCH Switzerland   (Switzerland)

ⁱ CARROLL COLLEGE   (United States)

^j UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHIBIA; BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS; FUNGI;

EID: 79955106416     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17429994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-8-8     Document Type: Review

References (242)

1. Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. 2007, 1-64. IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, Gascon C, Collins JP, Moore RD, Church DR, McKay JE, Mendelson JR III.
2. Redford K, Sanjayan MA. Retiring Cassandra. Conserv Biol 2003, 17:1473-1474.
3. Donlon CJ, Berger J, Bock CE, Bock JH, Burney DA, Estes JA, Foreman D, Martin PS, Roemer GW, Smith FA, Soule ME, Greene HW. Pleistocene rewilding: An optimistic agenda for twenty-first century conservation. Am Nat 2006, 168:660-681. 10.1086/508027, 17080364.
4. Chan KMA, Pringle RM, Ranganathan J, Boggs CL, Chan YL, Ehrlich PR, Haff PK, Heller NE, Al-Khafaji K, Macmynowski DP. When agendas collide: Human welfare and biological conservation. Conserv Biol 2007, 21:59-68. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00570.x, 17298511.
5. Lubick N. Emergency medicine for frogs. Nature 2010, 465:680-681. 10.1038/465680a, 20535176.
6. Vredenburg VT. Reversing introduced species effects: Experimental removal of introduced fish leads to rapid recovery of a declining frog. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004, 101:7646-7650. 10.1073/pnas.0402321101, 419660, 15136741.
7. Petranka JW, Harp EM, Holbrook CT, Hamel JA. Long-term persistence of amphibian populations in a restored wetland complex. Biological Conservation 2009, 138:371-380.
8. Rannap R, Lohmus A, Briggs L. Restoring ponds for amphibians: a success story. Hydrobiologia 2009, 634:87-95.
9. Channing A, Finlow-Bates KS, Haarklau SE, Hawkes PG. The biology and recent history of the critically endangered Kihansi spray toad Nectophrynoides asperginins in Tanzania. J East Afr Nat Hist 2006, 95:117-138.
10. Collins JP Crump ML. Extinction in Our Times: Global Amphibian Declines. 2009, New York: Oxford University Press.
11. Blaustein AR, Kiesecker JM. Complexity in conservation: lessons from the global decline of amphibian populations. Ecol Lett 2002, 5:597-608.
12. Berger L, Speare R, Daszak P, Green DE, Cunningham AA, Goggin CL, Slocombe R Ragan MA, Hyatt AD, McDonald KR, Hines HB, Lips KR, Marantelli G, Parkes H. Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America. P Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, 95:9031-9036.
13. Daszak P, Berger L, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD, Green DE, Speare R. Emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines. Emerg Infect Dis 1999, 5:1-23. 10.3201/eid0506.990601, 2627694, 10081666.
14. Skerratt LF, Berger L, Speare R, Cashins S, McDonald KR, Phillott AD, Hines HB, Kenyon N. Spread of chytridiomycosis has caused the rapid global decline and extinction of frogs. Ecohealth 2007, 4:125-134.
15. Daszak P, Strieby A, Brown CC, Cunningham AA, Longcore JS, Porter D. Experimental evidence that the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of amphibians. Herpetol J 2004, 14:201-207.
16. Woodhams DC, Hyatt AD, Boyle DG, Rollins-Smith LA. The northern leopard frog Rana pipiens is a widespread reservoir species harboring Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in North America. Herp Rev 2008, 39:66-68.
17. Briggs CJ, Knapp RA, Vredenburg VT. Enzootic and epizootic of the chytrid fungal pathogen of amphibians. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:9695-9700.
18. Longo AV, Burrowes PA. Persistence with chytridiomycosis does not assure survival of direct-developing frogs. EcoHealth 2010, 7:185-195. 10.1007/s10393-010-0327-9, 20585971.
19. Pilliod DS, Muths E, Scherer RD, Bartelt PE, Corn PS, Hossack BR, Lambert BA, McCaffery R, Gaughan C. Effects of amphibian chytrid fungus on individual survival probability in wild boreal toads. Conservation Biology 2010, 24:1259-1267. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01506.x, 20412086.
20. Lips KR, Brem F, Brenes R, Reeve JD, Alford RA, Voyles J, Carey C, Livo L, Pessier AP, Collins JP. Emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a Neotropical amphibian community. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2006, 103:3165-3170.
21. Vredenburg VT, Knapp RA, Tunstall TS, Briggs CJ. Dynamics of an emerging disease drive large-scale amphibian population extinctions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:9689-9694. 10.1073/pnas.0914111107, 2906868, 20457913.
22. Schloegel LM, Hero JM, Berger L, Speare R, McDonald K, Daszak P. The decline of the sharp-snouted day frog (Taudactylus acutirostris): the first documented case of extinction by infection in a free-ranging wildlife species?. EcoHealth 2006, 3:35-40.
23. Ryan MJ, Lips KR, Eichholz MW. Decline and extirpation of an endangered Panamanian stream frog population (Craugastor punctariolus) due to an outbreak of chytridiomycosis. Biol Conserv 2008, 141:1636-1647.
24. Crawford AJ, Lips KR, Bermingham E. Epidemic disease decimates amphibian abundance, species diversity, and evolutionary history in the highlands of central Panama. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, (advance online publication).
25. Smith KG, Lips KR, Chase JM. Selecting for extinction: non-random disease associated extinction homogenizes amphibian biotas. Ecol Lett 2009, 12:1-10.
26. Pounds JA, Fogden MPL, Savage JM, Gorman GC. Tests of null models for amphibian declines on a tropical mountain. Cons Biol 1997, 11:1307-1322.
27. Whiles MR, Lips KR, Pringle CM, Kilham SS, Bixby RJ, Brenes R, Connelly S, Colon-Gaud JC, Hunt-Browne M, Huryn AD, Montgomery C, Peterson S. The effects of amphibian population declines on the structure and function of Neotropical stream ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 2006, 4:27-34.
28. Verburg P, Kilham SS, Pringle CM, Lips KR, Drake DL. A stable isotope study of a neotropical stream food web prior to the extirpation of its large amphibian community. J Trop Ecol 2007, 23:643-51.
29. Connelly S, Pringle CM, Bixby RJ, Whiles MR, Lips KR, Kilham S, Huryn AD. Changes in stream primary producer communities resulting from large-scale catastrophic amphibian declines: Can small-scale experiments predict effects of tadpole loss?. Ecosystems 2008, 11:1262-1276.
30. Retallick RWR, McCallum H, Speare R. Endemic infection of the amphibian chytrid fungus in a frog community post-decline. PLoS Biol 2004, 2:e351. 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020351, 521176, 15502873.
31. Fisher MC, Garner TWJ. The relationship between the introduction of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the international trade in amphibians and introduced amphibian species. Fungal Biol Rev 2007, 21:2-9.
32. Pounds JA, Bustamante MR, Coloma LA, Consuegra JA, Fogden MPL, Foster PN, La Marca E, Masters KL, Merino-Viteri A, Puschendorf R, Ron SR, Sanchez-Azofeifa GA, Still CJ, Young BE. Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 2006, 439:161-167. 10.1038/nature04246, 16407945.
33. Bosch J, Carrascal LM, Dura L, Walker S, Fisher MC. Climate change and outbreaks of amphibian chytridiomycosis in a montane area of central Spain; is there a link?. P Roy Soc Lond B 2007, 274:253-260.
34. Garner TWJ, Walker S, Bosch J, Leech S, Rowcliffe JM, Cunningham AA, Fisher MC. Life history tradeoffs influence mortality associated with amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Oikos 2009, 118:783-791.
35. Tobler U, Schmidt BR. Within- and among-population variation in chytridiomycosis-induced mortality in the toad Alytes obstetricans. PLoS ONE 2010, 5:e10927. 10.1371/journal.pone.0010927, 2880007, 20532196.
36. Walker SF, Bosch J, Gomez V, Garner TWJ, Cunningham AA, Schmeller DS, Ninyerola M, Henk D, Ginestet C, Arthur CP, Fisher MC. Factors driving pathogenicity versus prevalence of amphibian panzootic chytridiomycosis in Iberia. Ecol Lett 2010, 13:372-382. 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01434.x, 20132274.
37. Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage Threat Abatement Plan against amphibian chytridiomycosis 2006, Canberra, Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage., http://www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/papers/chytrid-report.pdf
38. Gagliardo R, Crump P, Griffith E, Mendelson J, Ross H, Zippel K. The principles of rapid response for amphibian conservation, using the programmes in Panama as an example. Int Zoo Yearbook 2008, 42:125-135.
39. Kriger KM, Hero JM. Chytridiomycosis, amphibian extinctions, and lessons for the prevention of future panzootics. EcoHealth 2009, 6:6-10. 10.1007/s10393-009-0228-y, 19421815.
40. Dodd KR. Conservation and management. Amphibian ecology and conservation: A handbook of techniques 2010, 507-522. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Dodd KR Jr.
41. Taylor SK, Green DE, Wright KM, Whitaker BR. Bacterial diseases. Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry 2001, 158-179. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, Wright KM, Whitaker BR.
42. Kleinegger CL, Lockhart SR, Vargas K, Soll DR. Frequency, intensity, species, and strains of oral candida vary as a function of host age. J Clinical Microbiology 1996, 34:2246-2254.
43. d'Enfert C. Hidden killers: persistence of opportunistic fungal pathogens in the human host. Curr Opin Microbiol 2009, 12:358-364.
44. Wilson M. Microbial Inhabitants of Humans: Their ecology and role in health and disease 2005, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
45. Ziebuhr W, Hennig S, Eckart M, Kranzler H, Batzilla C, Kozitskaya S. Nosocomial infections by Staphylococcus epidermidis: how a commensal bacterium turns into a pathogen. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006, 28S:S14-S20.
46. Barry CE, Boshoff HI, Dartois V, Dick T, Ehrt S, Flynn J, Schnappinger D, Wilkinson RJ, Young D. The spectrum of latent tuberculosis: rethinking the biology and intervention strategies. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009, 7:845-855.
47. Benson A, Pifer R, Behrendt CL, Hooper LV, Yarovinsky F. Gut commensal bacteria direct a protective immune response against Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Host Microbe 2009, 6:187-196. 10.1016/j.chom.2009.06.005, 2746820, 19683684.
48. Pechenik JA. Larval experience and latent effects-metamorphosis is not a new beginning. Integrative and Comparative Biology 2006, 46:323-333.
49. Retallick RWR, Miera V. Strain differences in the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and non-permanent, sub-lethal effects of infection. Dis Aquat Org 2004, 75:201-207.
50. Becker MH, Brucker RM, Schwantes CR, Harris RN, Minbiole KPC. The bacterially produced metabolite violacein is associated with survival of amphibians infected with a lethal fungus. Appl Environ Microb 2009, 75:6635-6638.
51. Becker MH, Harris RN. Cutaneous bacteria of the redback salamander prevent morbidity associated with a lethal disease. PLoS One 2010, 5:e10957. 10.1371/journal.pone.0010957, 2881031, 20532032.
52. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. The damage-response framework of microbial pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbial 2003, 1:17-24.
53. Carey C, Bruzgul JE, Livo LJ, Walling ML, Kuehl KA, Dixon BF, Pessier AP, Alford RA, Rodgers KB. Experimental exposures of boreal toads (Bufo boreas) to a pathogenic chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). EcoHealth 2006, 3:5-21.
54. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. Host-pathogen interactions: Redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infect Immun 1999, 67:3703-3713. 96643, 10417127.
55. Sadd BM, Schmid-Hempel P. Principles of ecological immunology. Evol Appl 2009, 2:113-121.
56. Stockwell MP, Clulow J, Mahoney MJ. Host species determines whether infection load increases beyond disease-causing thresholds following exposure to the amphibian chytrid fungus. Anim Conserv 2010, 13S1:62-71.
57. Murphy PJ, St-Hilaire S, Bruer S, Corn PS, Peterson CR. Distribution and pathogenicity of Batraochytrium dendrobatidis in boreal toads from the Grand Teton area of western Wyoming. EcoHealth 2009, 6:109-120. 10.1007/s10393-009-0230-4, 19418097.
58. Berger L, Speare R, Hines H, Marantelli G, Hyatt AD, McDonald KR, Skerratt LF, Olsen V, Clarke JM, Gillespie G, Mahony M, Sheppard N, Williams C, Tyler MJ. Effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis. Austral Vet J 2004, 82:31-36.
59. Bishop PJ, Speare R, Poulter R, Butler M, Speare BJ, Hyatt A, Olsen V, Haigh A. Elimination of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis by Archey's frog Leiopelma archeyi. Dis Aquat Org 2009, 84:9-15. 10.3354/dao02028, 19419002.
60. Ribas L, Li MS, Doddington BJ, Robert J, Seidel JA, Kroll JS, Zimmerman LB, Grassly NC, Garner TW, Fisher MC. Expression profiling the temperature-dependent amphibian response to infection by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. PLoS One 2009, 4:e8408. 10.1371/journal.pone.0008408, 2794374, 20027316.
61. Ramsey JP, Reinert LK, Harper LK, Woodhams DC, Rollins-Smith LA. Immune defenses against Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungus linked to global amphibian declines, in the South African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. Infect Immun 2010, 78:3981-3992. 10.1128/IAI.00402-10, 2937463, 20584973.
62. Wobeser GA. Disease in Wild Animals: Investigation and Management 2007, New York, NY: Springer, 2.
63. Longcore JR, Longcore JE, Pessier AP, Halteman WA. Chytridiomycosis widespread in anurans of northeastern United States. Journal of Wildlife Management 2007, 71:435-444.
64. Rothermel BB, Walls SC, Mitchell JC, Dodd Jr CK, Irwin LK, Green DE, Vazquez VM, Petranka JW, Stevenson DJ. Widespread occurrence of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the southeastern USA. Dis Aquat Organ 2008, 82:3-18. 10.3354/dao01974, 19062748.
65. Parris MJ, Baudoin DR. Interactive effects of a heavy metal and chytridiomycosis on gray treefrog larvae (Hyla chrysoscelis). Copeia 2004, 2:344-350.
66. Parris MJ, Cornelius TO. Fungal pathogen causes competitive and developmental stress in larval amphibian communities. Ecology 2004, 85:3385-3395.
67. Rohr JR, Raffel TR. Linking global climate and temperature variability to widespread amphibian declines putatively caused by disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:8269-8274. 10.1073/pnas.0912883107, 2889522, 20404180.
68. Berger L, Marantelli G, Skerratt LF, Speare R. Virulence of the amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, varies with the strain. Dis Aquat Organ 2005, 68:47-50. 10.3354/dao068047, 16465833.
69. Fisher MC, Bosch J, Yin Z, Stead DA, Walker J, Selway L, Brown AJP, Walker LA, Gow NAR, Stajich JE, Garner TWJ. Proteomic and phenotypic profiling of the amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis shows that genotype is linked to virulence. Mol Ecol 2009, 18:415-429. 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.04041.x, 19161465.
70. Barlow ND. The ecology of wildlife disease control: Simple models revisited. J Appl Ecol 1996, 33:303-314.
71. McCallum H, Barlow N, Hone J. How should pathogen transmission be modeled?. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2001, 16:295-300.
72. Ferguson NM, Donnelly CA, Anderson RM. Transmission intensity and impact of control policies on the foot and mouth epidemic in Great Britain. Nature 2001, 413:542-548. 10.1038/35097116, 11586365.
73. Shim E, Galvani AP. Evolutionary repercussions of avian culling on host resistance and influenza virulence. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5503. 10.1371/journal.pone.0005503, 2675103, 19430529.
74. Lu Z, Mitchell RM, Smith RL, Van Kessel JS, Chapagain PP, Schukken YH, Grohn YT. The importance of culling in Johne's disease control. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2008, 254:135-146. 10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.05.008, 18573505.
75. McCallum H, Hocking BA. Reflecting on ethical and legal issues in wildlife disease. Bioethics 2005, 19:336-347. 10.1111/j.1467-8519.2005.00447.x, 16222841.
76. Lachish S, McCallum H, Mann D, Pukk CE, Jones ME. Evaluation of selective culling of infected individuals to control Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease. Conservation Biology 2010, 24:841-851. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01429.x, 20088958.
77. Hallam TG, McCracken GF. Management of the panzootic white-nose syndrome through culling of bats. Cons Biol 2011,
78. Hess G. Disease in metapopulation models: Implications for conservation. Ecology 1996, 77:1617-1632.
79. Rachowicz LJ, Briggs CJ. Quantifying the disease transmission function: effects of density on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis transmission in the mountain yellow-legged frog Rana muscosa. J Anim Ecol 2007, 76:711-721. 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01256.x, 17584377.
80. Johnson GF. The Early History of Copper Fungicides. Ag Hist 1935, 9:67-79.
81. Russell PE. A century of fungicide evolution. J Ag Sci 2005, 143:11-25.
82. Lilley JH, Inglis V. Comparative effects of various antibiotics, fungicides and disinfectants on Aphanomyces invaderis and other saprolegniaceous fungi. Aquaculture Research 1997, 28:461-469.
83. Mifsud C, Rowland SJ. Use of salt to control ichthyophthiriosis and prevent saprolegniosis in silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus. Aquaculture Res 2008, 39:1175-1180.
84. Wright KM, Whitaker BR. Pharmacotherapeutics. Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry 2001, 309-330. Malabar FL: Krieger Publishing Company, Wright KM, Whitaker BR.
85. Russell RC. Constructed wetlands and mosquitoes: Health hazards and management options - An Australian perspective. Ecol Eng 1999, 12:107-124.
86. Carter ED. Development narratives and the uses of ecology: malaria control in Northwest Argentina, 1890-1940. J Hist Geogr 2007, 33:619-650.
87. Johnson ML, Berger L, Philips L, Speare R. Fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants, UV light, desiccation and heat on the amphibian chytrid, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Dis Aquat Org 2003, 57:255-260. 10.3354/dao057255, 14960039.
88. Johnson ML, Speare R. Survival of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water: quarantine and disease control implications. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9:922-925. 3020615, 12967488.
89. Harris RN, James TY, Lauer A, Simon MA, Patel A. Amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is inhibited by the cutaneous bacteria of amphibian species. EcoHealth 2006, 3:53-56.
90. Woodhams DC, Alford RA, Marantelli G. Emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature. Dis Aquat Org 2003, 55:65-67. 10.3354/dao055065, 12887256.
91. Geiger CC, Küpfer E, Schär S, Wolf S, Schmidt BR. Elevated temperature clears chytrid fungus infections from tadpoles of the midwife toad, Alytes obstetricans. Amphibia-Reptilia 2011, 32:276-280.
92. Chatfield M, Richards-Zawacki C. Elevated temperature as a treatment for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in captive frogs. Dis Aquat Org 2011,
93. Garner TWJ, García G, Carroll B, Fisher MC. Using itraconazole to clear Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection, and subsequent depigmentation of Alytes muletensis tadpoles. Dis Aquat Org 2009, 83:257-60. 10.3354/dao02008, 19402457.
94. Berger L, Speare R, Pessier A, Voyles J, Skerratt LF. Treatment of chytridiomycosis requires urgent clinical trials. Dis Aquat Org 2010, 92:165-174. 10.3354/dao02238, 21268978.
95. Briggs CJ, Vredenburg VT, Knapp RA, Rachowicz LJ. Investigating the population-level effects of chytridiomycosis: an emerging infectious disease of amphibians. Ecology 2005, 86:3149-3159.
96. Mitchell KM, Churcher TS, Garner TWJ, Fisher MC. Persistence of the emerging pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis outside the amphibian host greatly increases the probability of host extinction. P Roy Soc Lond B 2008, 275:329-334.
97. Skelly DK, Freidenburg LK, Kiesecker JM. Forest canopy and the performance of larval amphibians. Ecology 2002, 83:983-992.
98. Skelly DK, Freidenburg LK. Effects of beaver on the thermal biology of an amphibian. Ecol Lett 2000, 3:483-486.
99. Dalbeck L, Lüscher B, Ohlhoff D. Beaver ponds as habitat of amphibian communities in a central European highland. Amphibia-Reptilia 2007, 28:493-501.
100. Van Buskirk J. Amphibian phenotypic variation along a gradient in canopy cover: species differences and plasticity. Oikos 2010, 119:1047-1055.
101. Denton JS, Hitchings SP, Beebee TJC, Gent A. A recovery program for the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) in Britain. Conserv Biol 1997, 11:1329-1338.
102. Muths E, Johnson TL, Corn PS. Experimental translocation of boreal toad (Bufo boreas) embryos, toadlets and adults in Rocky Mountain National Park. The Southwestern Naturalist 2001, 46:106-113.
103. Dreitz VJ. Issues in species recovery: an example based on the Wyoming toad. BioScience 2006, 56:765-771.
104. Griffiths RA, Pavajeau L. Captive breeding, reintroduction, and the conservation of amphibians. Cons Biol 2008, 22:852-861.
105. Walker SF, Bosch J, James TY, Litvintseva AP, Valls JAO, Piña S, García G, Rosa GA, Cunningham AA, Hole S, Griffiths R, Fisher MC. Invasive pathogens threaten species recovery programs. Curr Biol 2008, 18:R853-R854. 10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.033, 18812076.
106. Germano JM, Bishop PJ. Suitability of amphibians and reptiles for translocation. Conserv Biol 2009, 23:7-15. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01123.x, 19143783.
107. Frankham R. Genetic adaptation to captivity in species conservation programs. Mol Ecol 2008, 17:325-333. 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03399.x, 18173504.
108. Williams SE, Hoffman EA. Minimizing genetic adaptation in captive breeding programs: A review. Biol Cons 2009, 142:2388-2400.
109. Semlitsch RD. Critical elements for biologically-effective recovery plans of aquatic breeding amphibians. Cons Biol 2002, 16:619-629.
110. Dodd CK. Population manipulation. Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species 2005, 265-270. Berkeley: University of California Press, Lannoo MJ.
111. Stear MJ, Bishop SC, Mallard BA, Raadsma H. The sustainability, feasibility and desirability of breeding livestock for disease resistance. Res Vet Sci 2001, 71:1-7. 10.1053/rvsc.2001.0496, 11666141.
112. Hocking PM. Developments in poultry genetic research 1960-2009. Br Poult Sci 2010, 51S1:44-51.
113. Fjalestad KT, Gjedrem T, Refstie T. Selection for enhanced resistance in Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 1995, 137:275.
114. Wiegertjes GF, Stet RJM, van Muiswinkel WB. Divergent selection for antibody production to produce standard carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) lines for the study of disease resistance in fish. Aquaculture 1995, 139:257-262.
115. Henryon M, Berg P, Olesen NJ, Kjaer TE, Slierendrecht WJ, Jokumsen A, Lund I. Selective breeding provides an approach to increase resistance of rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) to the diseases, enteric redmouth disease, rainbow trout fry syndrome, and viral haemorrhagic septicaemia. Aquaculture 2005, 250:621-636.
116. Tennessen JA, Blouin MS. Balancing selection at a frog antimicrobial peptide locus: fluctuating immune effector alleles?. Mol Biol Evol 2008, 25:2669-2680. 10.1093/molbev/msn208, 2582982, 18799711.
117. Ardipradja K, Alford RA, Marantelli G, Reinert LK, Rollins-Smith LA. Resistance to chytridiomycosis varies among amphibian species and is correlated with skin peptide defenses. Anim Cons 2007, 10:409-508.
118. Woodhams DC, Rollins-Smith LA, Carey C, Reinert L, Tyler MJ, Alford RA. Population trends associated with antimicrobial peptide defenses against chytridiomycosis in Australian frogs. Oecologia 2006, 146:531-540. 10.1007/s00442-005-0228-8, 16205955.
119. Tennessen JA, Woodhams DC, Chaurand P, Reinert LK, Billheimer D, Shyr Y, Caprioli RM, Blouin MS, Rollins-Smith LA. Variations in the expressed antimicrobial peptide repertoire of northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) populations suggest intraspecies differences in resistance to pathogens. Dev Comp Immunol 2009, 33:1247-1257. 10.1016/j.dci.2009.07.004, 2927990, 19622371.
120. Rollins-Smith LA, Carey C, Longcore J, Doersam JK, Boutte A, Bruzgal JE, Conlon JM. Activity of antimicrobial skin peptides from ranid frogs against Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the chytrid fungus associated with global amphibian declines. Dev Comp Immunol 2002, 26:471-479. 10.1016/S0145-305X(01)00088-X, 11906726.
121. Sheafor B, Davidson EW, Parr L, Rollins-Smith L. Antimicrobial peptide defenses in the salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, against emerging amphibian pathogens. J Wildlife Dis 2008, 44:226-236.
122. Woodhams DC, Kenyon N, Bell SC, Alford RA, Chen S, Billheimer D, Shyr Y, Rollins-Smith LA. Adaptations of skin peptide defences and possible response to the amphibian chytrid fungus in populations of Australian green-eyed treefrogs, Litoria genimaculata. Div Distrib 2010, 16:703-712.
123. Roy BA, Kirchner JW. Evolutionary dynamics of pathogen resistance and tolerance. Evolution 2000, 54:51-63.
124. Tennessen JA, Blouin MS. Selection for antimicrobial peptide diversity in frogs leads to gene duplication and low allelic variation. J Mol Evol 2007, 65:605-615. 10.1007/s00239-007-9045-5, 17938991.
125. Woodhams DC, Voyles J, Lips KR, Carey C, Rollins-Smith LA. Predicted disease susceptibility in a Panamanian amphibian assemblage based on skin peptide defenses. J Wildl Dis 2006, 42:207-218.
126. Conlon JM, Iwamuro S, King JD. Dermal cytolytic peptides and the system of innate immunity in anurans. Trends in Comparative Endocrinology and Neurobiology: Ann NY Acad Sci 2009, 1163:75-82.
127. Rollins-Smith LA, Ramsey JP, Reinert LK, Woodhams DC, Livo LJ, Carey C. Immune defenses of Xenopus laevis against Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Front Biosci (Schol Ed) 2009, 1:68-91.
128. Richmond JQ, Savage AE, Zamudio KR, Rosenblum EB. Toward immunogenetic studies of amphibian chytridiomycosis: Linking innate and aquired immunity. BioSci 2009, 59:311-320.
129. Grant BR, Grant PR. Evolution of Darwin's finches caused by a rare climatic event. P Roy Soc Lond B Bio 1993, 251:111-117.
130. Hunter D, Osborne W, Marantelli G, Green K. Implementation of a population augmentation project for remnant populations of the Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree). Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs 1999, 158-167. Canberra: Environment Australia, Campbell A.
131. Vieites DR, Wollenberg KC, Andreone F, Köhler J, Glaw F, Vences M. Vast underestimation of Madagascar's biodiversity evidenced by an integrative amphibian inventory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:8267-8272. 10.1073/pnas.0810821106, 2688882, 19416818.
132. Fitzpatrick JW, Lammertink M, Luneau MD, Gallagher TW, Harrison BR, Sparling GM, Rosenberg KV, Rohrbaugh RW, Swarthout EC, Wrege PH, Warthout SB, Dantzker MS, Charif RA, Barksdale TR, Remsen JV, Simion SD, Zollner D. Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America. Science 2005, 308:1460-1462. 10.1126/science.1114103, 15860589.
133. Sibley DA, Bevier LR, Patten MA, Elphick CS. Ivory-billed or pileated woodpecker?. Science 2007, 315:1495-1496. 10.1126/science.315.5818.1495, 17363644.
134. Ladle RJ, Jepson P, Jennings S, Malhado ACM. Caution with claims that a species has been rediscovered. Nature 2009, 461:723. 10.1038/461723c, 19812650.
135. McKelvey KS, Aubry KB, Schwartz MK. Using anecdotal occurrence data for rare or elusive species: The illusion of reality and a call for evidentiary standards. BioScience 2008, 58:549-555.
136. Roberts DL, Elphick CS, Reed JM. Identifying anomalous reports of putatively extinct species and why it matters. Conserv Biol 2009, 24:189-196. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01292.x, 19604294.
137. Abarca J, Chaves G, Garcia-Rodriguez A, Vargas R. Reconsidering extinction: Rediscovery of Incilius holdridgei (Anura: Bufonidae) in Costa Rica after 25 years. Herp Rev 2010, 41:15-152.
138. Puschendorf R, Chaves G, Crawford AJ, Brooks DR. Eleutherodactylus ranoides (NCN). Dry forest population, refuge from decline?. Herpetol Rev 2005, 36:53.
139. Puschendorf R, Carnaval AC, VanDerWal J, Zumbado-Ulate H, Chaves G, Bolaños F, Alford RA. Distribution models for the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Costa Rica: proposing climatic refuges as a conservation tool. Divers Distrib 2009, 15:401-408.
140. Rödder D, Kielgast J, Bielby J, Schmidtlein S, Bosch J, Garner TWJ, Veith M, Walker S, Fisher MC, Lötters S. Global amphibian extinction risk assessment for the panzootic chytrid fungus. Diversity 2009, 52-66.
141. Murray KA, Puschendorf R, Skerratt LF, Rosauer D, McCallum HI, Berger L, Speare R, VanDerWal J. Assessing spatial patterns of disease risk to biodiversity: implications for the management of the amphibian pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. J Appl Ecol 2011, 48:163-173.
142. van Riper III C, Riper S, Goff ML, Laird M. The epizootiology and ecological significance of malaria in Hawaiian land birds. Ecol Monogr 1986, 56:327-344.
143. Woodworth BA, Atkinson CT, LaPointe DA, Hart PJ, Spiegel CS, Tweed EJ, Henneman C, LeBrun J, Denette T, DeMots R, Kozar KL, Triglia D, Lease D, Gregor A, Smith T, Duffy D. Host population persistence in the face of introduced vector-borne diseases: Hawaii amakihi and avian malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005, 102:1531-1536. 10.1073/pnas.0409454102, 547860, 15668377.
144. Foster JT, Woodworth BL, Eggert LE, Hart PJ, Palmer D, Duffy DC, Fleischer RC. Genetic structure and evolved malaria resistance in Hawaiian honeycreepers. Mol Ecol 2007, 16:4738-4746. 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03550.x, 17944845.
145. McDonald K, Alford RA. A review of declining frogs in northern Queensland. Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs 1999, 14-22. Canberra: Environment Australia, Campbell A.
146. Puschendorf R, Bolaños F, Chaves G. The amphibian chytrid fungus along an altitudinal transect before the first reported declines in Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 2006, 132:136-142.
147. Murray KA, Skerratt LF, Speare R, McCallum H. Impact and dynamics of disease in species threatened by the amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Conservation Biology 2009, 23:1242-1252. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01211.x, 19774709.
148. Woodhams DC, Kilburn VL, Reinert LK, Voyles J, Medina D, Ibanez R, Hyatt AD, Boyle DG, Pask JD, Green DM, Rollins-Smith LA. Chytridiomycosis and amphibian population declines continue to spread eastward in Panama. EcoHealth 2008, 5:268-274. 10.1007/s10393-008-0190-0, 18807089.
149. Pounds JA, Carnaval AC, Puschendorf R, Haddad CFB, Masters KL. Action on amphibian extinctions: going beyond the reductive. Science 313. (E-Letter, 28 August 2007)., http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/eletters/313/5783/48
150. Campbell JA, Savage JM. Taxonomic reconsideration of middle american frogs of the Eleutherodactylus rugulosus group (Anura: Leptodactylidae): A reconnaissance of subtle nuances among frogs. Herpetol Monogr 2000, 14:186-292.
151. Minteer BA, Collins JP. Move it or lose it? The ecological ethics of relocating species under climate change. Ecol Appl 2010, 20:1801-1804. 10.1890/10-0318.1, 21049870.
152. Domenech J, Lubroth J, Sumption K. Immune protection in animals: the examples of rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease. J Comp Pathol 2010, 142:120-4.
153. Rocke TE, Smith S, Marinari P, Kreeger J, Enama JT, Powell BS. Vaccination with F1-V fusion protein protects black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) against plague upon oral challenge with Yersinia pestis. Journal Wildlife Dis 2008, 44:1-7.
154. Woodroffe R. Managing disease threats to wild mammals. Anim Cons 1999, 2:185-193.
155. Russell CA, Real LA, Smith DL. Spatial control of rabies on heterogeneous landscapes. PLoS One 2006, 1:e27. 10.1371/journal.pone.0000027, 1762310, 17183654.
156. James TY, Litvintseva AP, Vilgalys R, Morgan JAT, Taylor JW, Fisher MC, Berger L, Weldon C, du Preez L, Longcore JE. Rapid global expansion of the fungal disease chytridiomycosis into declining and healthy amphibian populations. PLoS Pathog 2009, 5:e1000458. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000458, 2680619, 19478871.
157. Voyles J. Phenotypic profiling of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a lethal fungal pathogen of amphibians. Fungal Ecol 2011, 4:196-200.
158. Schmid-Hempel P. Parasite immune evasion: a momentous molecular war. Trends Ecol Evol 2008, 23:318-326. 10.1016/j.tree.2008.02.011, 18439709.
159. Longcore JE, Pessier AP, Nichols DK. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis gen. et sp. nov., a chytrid pathogenic to amphibians. Mycologia 1999, 91:219-227.
160. Woodhams DC, Alford RA, Briggs CJ, Johnson M, Rollins-Smith LA. Life history trade-offs influence disease in changing climates: strategies of an amphibian pathogen. Ecology 2008, 89:1627-1639. 10.1890/06-1842.1, 18589527.
161. Voyles J. Virulence and pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis: A lethal disease of amphibians. Ph.D. thesis 2010, James Cook University, School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Sciences.
162. Lund A, DeBoer DJ. Immunoprophylaxis of dermatophytosis in animals. Mycopathologia 2008, 166:407-424. 10.1007/s11046-008-9111-6, 18478355.
163. Porta A, Eletto A, Torok Z, Franceschelli S, Glatz A, Vígh L, Maresca B. Changes in membrane fluid state and heat shock response cause attenuation of virulence. J Bacteriology 2010, 192:1999-2005.
164. Stice MJ, Briggs CJ. Immunization is ineffective at preventing infection and mortality due to the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. J Wildlife Dis 2010, 46:70-77.
165. Ritchie KB. Regulation of microbial populations by coral surface mucus and mucus-associated bacteria. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 2006, 332:1-14.
166. Belden LK, Harris RN. Infectious diseases in wildlife: the community ecology context. Front Ecol Environ 2007, 5:533-539.
167. Fraune S, Augustin R, Bosch TCG. Exploring host-microbe interactions in hydra. Microbe 2009, 4:457-462.
168. Alexander M. Inoculation. Biodegradation and Bioremediation 1994, California: Academic Press, Alexander M.
169. El Fantroussi S, Agathos SN. Is bioaugmentation a feasible strategy for pollutant removal and site remediation?. Curr Opin Microbiol 2005, 8:268-175. 10.1016/j.mib.2005.04.011, 15939349.
170. Krutmann J. Pre- and probiotics for human skin. Journal of Dermatological Science 2009, 54:1-5. 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2009.01.002, 19203862.
171. Butt TM, Copping LG. Fungal biological control agents. Pestic Outlook 2000, 11:186-191.
172. Yang C, Crowley DE, Menge JA. 16S rDNA fingerprinting of rhizosphere bacterial communities associated with healthy and Phytophthora infected avocado roots. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2001, 35:129-136. 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00796.x, 11295451.
173. Anagnostakis SL, Hillman B. Evolution of the chestnut tree and its blight. Arnoldia 1992, 52:2-10.
174. Teplitski M, Ritchie K. How feasible is the biological control of coral diseases?. Trends Ecol Evol 2009, 24:378-385. 10.1016/j.tree.2009.02.008, 19406502.
175. Austin RM. Cutaneous microbial flora and antibiosis in Plethodon ventralis. The Biology of Plethodontid Salamanders 2000, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, Bruce RC, Jaegar RG, Houck LD.
176. Harris RN, Brucker RM, Walke JB, Becker MH, Schwantes CR, Flaherty DC, Lam BA, Woodhams DC, Briggs CJ, Vredenburg VT, Minbiole KP. Skin microbes on frogs prevent morbidity and mortality caused by a lethal skin fungus. ISME J 2009, 3:818-824. 10.1038/ismej.2009.27, 19322245.
177. Harris RN, Lauer A, Simon MA, Banning JL, Alford RA. Addition of antifungal skin bacteria to salamanders ameliorates the effects of chytridiomycosis. Dis Aquat Org 2009, 83:11-16. 10.3354/dao02004, 19301631.
178. Lauer A, Simon MA, Banning JL, Andre E, Duncan K, Harris RN. Common cutaneous bacteria from the eastern red-backed salamander can inhibit pathogenic fungi. Copeia 2007, 3:630-640.
179. Lauer A, Simon MA, Banning JL, Lam BA, Harris RN. Diversity of cutaneous bacteria with antifungal activity isolated from female four-toed salamanders. ISME J 2008, 2:145-57. 10.1038/ismej.2007.110, 18079731.
180. Woodhams DC, Rollins-Smith LA, Briggs CJ, Vredenburg VT, Simon MA, Billheimer D, Shakhtour B, Shyr Y, Harris RN. Symbiotic bacteria contribute to innate immune defenses of the threatened mountain yellow-legged frog, Rana muscosa. Biol Cons 2007, 138:390-398.
181. Bäckhed F, Ley RE, Sonnenburg JL, Peterson DA, Gordon JI. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science 2005, 307:1915-1920.
182. Qin J, Li R, Raes J, Arumugam M, Burgdorf KS, Manichanh C, Nielsen T, Pons N, Levenez F, Yamada T, Mende DR, Li J, Xu J, Li S, Li D, Cao J, Wang B, Liang H, Zheng H, Xie Y, Tap J, Lepage P, Bertalan M, Batto JM, Hansen T, Le Paslier D, Linneberg A, Nielsen HB, Pelletier E, Renault P, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Turner K, Zhu H, Yu C, Li S, Jian M, Zhou Y, Li Y, Zhang X, Li S, Qin N, Yang H, Wang J, Brunak S, Doré J, Guarner F, Kristiansen K, Pedersen O, Parkhill J, Weissenbach J, Bork P, Ehrlich SD, Wang J. MetaHIT Consortium A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 2010, 464:59-67. 10.1038/nature08821, 20203603, MetaHIT Consortium.
183. Rescuing the yellow-legged frog. , http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/10/01/science/20101005-frogs/ind ex.html
184. Pearson MN, Beever RE, Boine B, Arthur K. Mycoviruses of filamentous fungi and their relevance to plant pathology. Mol Plant Pathol 2009, 10:115-128. 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00503.x, 19161358.
185. Kagami M, van Donk E, de Bruin A, Rijkeboer M, Ibelings BW. Daphnia can protect diatoms from fungal parasitism. Limnology and Oceanography 2004, 49:680-685.
186. Marten GG. Dengue hemorrhagic fever, mosquitoes, and copepods. J Policy Studies (Japan) 2000, 9:131-141.
187. Stoddard JL. Microcrustacean communities of high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada, California. J Plankton Res 1987, 9:631-650.
188. Richards RC, Goldman CR, Frantz TC, Wickwire R. Where have all the Daphnia gone. The decline of a major cladocerans in Lake Tahoe, California-Nevada. Verh Int Verein Limno 1975, 19:835-842.
189. Engle D, Melack JM. Zooplankton of high elevation lakes of the Sierra Nevada, California: potential effects of chronic episodic acidification. Arch Hydrobiol 1995, 133:1-21.
190. Knapp RA, Sarnelle O. Recovery after local extinction: factors affecting re-establishment of alpine lake zooplankton. Ecological Applications 2008, 18:1850-1859. 10.1890/08-0044.1, 19263883.
191. Gannon JE, Stemberger RS. Zooplankton (especially Crustaceans and Rotifers) as indicators of water quality. T Am Microsc Soc 1979, 97:16-35.
192. Gulati RD. Zooplankton and its grazing as indicator of trophic status in Dutch lakes. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 1982, 3:343-354.
193. Walseng B, Yan NC, Schartay AK. Littoral microcrustacean (cladocera and copepoda) indicators of acidification in Canadian shield lakes. Ambio 2003, 32:208-213.
194. Limburg PA, Weider LJ. 'Ancient DNA' in a microcrustacean resting egg bank can serve as a palaeolimological database. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 2002, 269:281-287.
195. Hayes TB, Falso P, Gallipeau S, Stice M. The cause of global amphibian declines: a developmental endocrinologist's perspective. The Journal of Experimental Biology 2010, 213:921-933. 10.1242/jeb.040865, 2829317, 20190117.
196. Lam BA, Walke JB, Vredenburg VT, Harris RN. Proportion of individuals with anti-Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis skin bacteria is associated with population persistence in the frog Rana muscosa. Biological Conservation 2010, 143:529-531.
197. Minteer BA, Collins JP. Ecological ethics: Building a new toolkit for ecologists and biodiversity managers. Conservation Biology 2005, 19:1803-1812.
198. Minteer BA, Collins JP. From environmental to ecological ethics: Toward a practical ethics of ecologists and conservationists. Sci Eng Ethics 2008, 14:483-501. 10.1007/s11948-008-9087-0, 18985441.
199. Orr DW. The virtue of conservation education. Conservation Biology 1990, 4:219-220.
200. Orr DW. Retrospect and prospect: the unbearable lightness of conservation. Conservation Biology 2009, 23:1349-1351. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01369.x, 20078632.
201. Van Dyke F. Between heaven and earth: evangelical engagement in conservation. Cons Biol 2005, 19:1693-1696.
202. Woodhams DC. Converting the religious: putting amphibian conservation in context. BioScience 2009, 59:462-463.
203. Duffy MA, Brassil CE, Hall SR, Tessier AJ, Caceres CE, Conner JK. Parasite-mediated disruptive selection in a natural Daphnia population. BMC Evol Biol 2008, 8:80. 10.1186/1471-2148-8-80, 2276202, 18328099.
204. Wilcoxen TE, Boughton RK, Schoech SJ. Selection on innate immunity and body condition in Florida scrub-jays throughout an epidemic. Biol Lett 2010, 6:552-554. 10.1098/rsbl.2009.1078, 20164081.
205. Rosenblum EB, Fisher MC, James TY, Stajich JE, Longcore JE, Gentry LR, Poorten TJ. A molecular perspecive: biology of the emerging pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Dis Aquat Organ 2010, 92:131-147. 10.3354/dao02179, 21268975.
206. Bosch J, Martínez-Solano I, García-París M. Evidence of a chytrid fungus infection involved in the decline of the common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) in protected areas of Central Spain. Biol Conserv 2001, 97:331-337.
207. Kilpatrick MA, Briggs CJ, Daszak P. The ecology and impact of chytridiomycosis: an emerging disease of amphibians. Trends Ecol Evol 2010, 25:109-118. 10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.011, 19836101.
208. Jobard M, Rasconi S, Sime-Ngando T. Diversity and functions of microscopic fungi: a missing component in pelagic food webs. Aquat Sci 2010, 72:255-268.
209. Rohr JR, Kerby JL, Sih A. Community ecology as a framework for predicting contaminant effects. Trends Ecol Evol 2006, 21:606-613. 10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.002, 16843566.
210. Kriger KM, Hero JM. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is non-randomly distributed across amphibian breeding habitats. Diversity and Distributions 2007, 13:781-788.
211. Griffiths RA. Temporary ponds as amphibian habitats. Aquat Conserv 1997, 7:119-126.
212. Schmidt BR, Zumbach S. Neue Herausforderungen und Wege im Amphibienschutz. Wildbiologie 2010, 4/37:1-16.
213. Kraaijeveld-Smit FJL, Beebee TJC, Griffiths RA, Moore RD, Schley L. Low gene flow but high genetic diversity in the threatened Mallorcan midwife toad Alytes muletensis. Mol Ecol 2005, 14:3307-3315. 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02614.x, 16156804.
214. Carey C, Corn PS, Jones MS, Livo LJ, Muths E, Loeffler CW. Environmental and life history factors that limit recovery in southern rocky mountain populations of boreal toads (Bufo boreas). Amphibian Declines: The Conservation of United States Species 2005, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, Lannoo M.
215. Corn PS, Jennings ML, Muths E. Distribution and status of amphibians in Rocky Mountain National Park. Northwestern Naturalist 1997, 78:34-55.
216. Holland AA, Wilson KR, Jones MS. Characteristics of Boreal Toad (Bufo boreas) breeding habitat in Colorado. Herp Rev 2006, 37:157-159.
217. Annis SL, Dastoor F, Ziel H, Daszak P, Longcore JE. A DNA-based assay to identify Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in amphibians. J Wildl Dis 2004, 40:420-428.
218. Kirshtein JD, Anderson CW, Wood JS, Longcore JE, Voytek MA. Quantitative PCR detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis DNA from sediments and water. Dis Aquat Org 2007, 77:11-15. 10.3354/dao01831, 17933393.
219. Edgar PW, Griffiths RA, Foster JP. Evaluation of translocation as a tool for mitigating development threats to great crested newts (Triturus cristatus) in England, 1990-2001. Biol Cons 2005, 122:45-52.
220. Nichols JD, Williams BK. Monitoring for conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 2006, 21:668-673. 10.1016/j.tree.2006.08.007, 16919361.
221. Goldman CR, Morgan M, Threlkeld ST, Angeli N. A population dynamics analysis of the cladoceran disappearance from Lake Tahoe. Limnol Oceanogr 1979, 24:289-297.
222. Koksvik JI, Reinertsen H, Koksvik J. Plankton development in Lake Jonsvatn, Norway, after introduction of Mysis relicta: a long-term study. Aquat Biol 2009, 5:293-304.
223. Beakes GW, Canter HM, Jaaworski GHM. Zoospore ultrastructure of Zygorhizidium affluens and Z. planktonicum, two chytrids parasitizing the diatom Asterionella formosa. Can J Bot 1988, 55:1054-1067.
224. Geller W, Mueller H. The filtration apparatus of cladocera: Filter mesh-sizes and their implications of food selectivity. Oecologia 1981, 49:316-321.
225. De Mott WR. The role of taste in food selection by freshwater zooplankton. Oecologia 1986, 69:334-340.
226. Kagami M, von Elert E, Ibleings BW, de Bruin A, van Donk E. The parasitic chytrid, Zygorhizidium, facilitates the growth of the cladocerans zooplankter, Daphnia, in cultures of the inedible alga, Asterionella. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2007, 274:1561-1566. 10.1098/rspb.2007.0425, 2176168, 17439852.
227. Nichols HW. Growth media - freshwater. Handbook of phycological methods: culture methods and growth measurements 1973, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Stein JR.
228. Voyles J, Rosenblum ER, Berger L. Interactions between Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and its amphibian hosts: a review of pathogenesis and immunity. Microb Infect 2011, 13:25-32.
229. Walker SF, Salas MB, Jenkins D, Garner TWJ, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD, Bosch J, Fisher MC. Environmental detection of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in a temperate climate. Dis Aquat Org 2007, 77:105-112. 10.3354/dao01850, 17972751.
230. Cossel JO, Lindquist KA. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in arboreal and lotic water sources in Panama. Herp Rev 2009, 40:45-47.
231. Richards-Zawacki CL. Thermoregulatory behaviour affects prevalence of chytrid fungal infection in a wild population of Panamanian golden frogs. P R Soc Lond B BIO 2010, 277:519-528.
232. Moss AS, Reddy NS, Dorta JIM, Francisco MJS. Chemotaxis of the amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and its response to a variety of attractants. Mycologia 2008, 100:1-5. 10.3852/mycologia.100.1.1, 18488347.
233. Green DE, Converse KA, Schrader AK. Epizootiology of sixty-four amphibian morbidity and mortality events in the USA, 1996-2001. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002, 969:323-339. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04400.x, 12381613.
234. Muths E, Corn PS, Pessier AP, Green DE. Evidence for disease-related amphibian decline in Colorado. Biological Conservation 2003, 110:357-365.
235. Blaustein AR, Romansic JM, Scheessele EA, Han BA, Pessier AP, Longcore JE. Interspecific variation in susceptibility of frog tadpoles to the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Conserv Biol 2005, 19:1460-1468.
236. Whitfield SM, Bell KE, Philippi T, Sasa M, Bolaños F, Chaves G, Savage JM, Donnelly MA. Amphibian and reptile declines over 35 years at La Selva, Costa Rica. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007, 104:8352-8356. 10.1073/pnas.0611256104, 1895953, 17449638.
237. Kriger KM, Hero JM. Survivorship in wild frogs infected with chytridiomycosis. EcoHealth 2006, 3:171-177.
238. Corn PS. Amphibians and disease: Implications for conservation in the Greater Yellowstone Eosystem. Yellowstone Science 2007, 15:11-16.
239. Voordouw MJ, Adama D, Houston B, Govindarajulu P, Robinson J. Prevalence of the pathogenic chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, in an endangered population of northern leopard frogs, Rana pipiens. BMC Ecology 2010, 10:6. 10.1186/1472-6785-10-6, 2846871, 20202208.
240. Márquez M, Nava-González F, Sánchez D, Calcagno M, Lampo M. Immunological clearance of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection at a pathogen-optimal temperature in the hylid frog Hypsiboas crepitans. EcoHealth 2011, (advance online publication).
241. Råberg L, Graham AL, Read AF. Decomposing health: tolerance and resistance to parasites in animals. Phil Trans R Soc B 2009, 364:37-49. 2666700, 18926971.
242. Miller MR, White A, Boots M. The evolution of host resistance: Tolerance and control as distinct strategies. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2005, 236:198-207. 10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.03.005, 16005309.