Intra-national IR in Africa

Review of International Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 49-70

  Lemke, Douglas ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79953079402     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210510001683     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. William Brown, 'Africa and International Relations: A Comment on IR Theory, Anarchy and Statehood', Review of International Studies, 32:1 (2006), pp. 119-43. (Pubitemid 43312513)
2. Christopher Clapham, 'Degrees of Statehood', Review of International Studies, 24:2 (1998), pp. 143-57. (Pubitemid 128358458)
3. A review essay summarising many studies of African IR and thus motivating this claim is Douglas Lemke, 'African Lessons for International Relations Research', World Politics, 56:1 (2003), pp. 114-38. (Pubitemid 38570969)
4. Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', pp. 121, 127.
5. Varying critical intensities characterise the contributions to Stephanie G. Neuman (ed.), International Relations Theory and the Third World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998)
6. and to Kevin C. Dunn and Timothy M. Shaw (eds), Africa's Challenge to International Relations Theory (New York: Palgrave, 2001).
7. Rather than carefully delineate Africanist scholars into different critical camps, I refer readers to the thoughtful discussion in Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', specifically pp. 120-2. I restrict myself to specific citations where possible, and use 'Africanist critique' or 'IR theory' only as a short hand for what I recognise to be varied scholarly groups.
8. Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', pp. 125-6;
9. and Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), p. 105. Both emphases added.
10. and Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), both quotes p. 129.
11. and Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 142-3.
12. Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Company, 1979), p. 121.
13. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 111, emphasis added.
14. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 114, emphases added.
15. Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', p. 137, emphases added.
16. Pierre Englebert, State Legitimacy and Development in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000), discusses capacity and legitimacy among African political units.
17. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 116, emphasis added.
18. To offset concerns that I am cherry picking obscure quotes from Waltz, a more recent but equally prominent American neo-realist writes: 'Although the focus in this study is on the state system, realist logic can be applied to other kinds of anarchic systems. After all, it is the absence of central authority, not any special characteristics of states, that causes them to compete for power.' John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2001), p. 414.
19. Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), particularly chap. 7;
20. Errol Henderson, 'Disturbing the Peace', British Journal of Political Science (forthcoming);
21. Pierre Englebert and Rebecca Hummel, 'Understanding Africa's Secessionist Deficit', African Affairs, 104:416 (2005), pp. 399-427.
22. Sources include: Rene Lemarchand, Political Awakening in the Belgian Congo (Berkeley, CA: The University of California Press, 1964);
23. Crawford Young, Politics in the Congo (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965);
24. Thomas Callaghy, The State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984);
25. Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985);
26. and Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila (London: Zed Books, 2002).
27. A rare exception is offered by Kevin Dunn, Imagining the Congo (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), specifically chap. 3.
28. Correlates of War Project (COW) state criteria are introduced in Bruce Russett, J. David Singer, and Melvin D. Small, 'National Political Units in the 20th Century', American Political Science Review, 62:3 (1968), pp. 932-51.
29. See, for example, Stuart Bremer with Faten Ghosn, 'Defining States', Conflict Management and Peace Science, 20:1 (2003), pp. 21-41.
30. Kristian Gleditsch and Michael D. Ward, 'A Revised List of Independent States Since the Congress of Vienna', International Interactions, 25:4 (1999), p. 399.
31. Debates about the inconsistent availability of legal recognition, and of the problems associated with it, are found in Stephen Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999);
32. Englebert, State Legitimacy and Development in Africa, chap. 8;
33. and Jeffrey Herbst, 'Let Them Fail', in Robert Rotberg (ed.), When States Fail: Causes and Consequences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).
34. Callaghy, The State-Society Struggle, p. 154;
35. see also, Irving Kaplan, Zaire: A Country Study (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1979), specifically p. 49.
36. For troop estimates see Michael Doyle and Nicholas Sambanis, Making War and Building Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 174
37. and for discussion of Katangan governance see Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 331.
38. Rene Lemarchand, 'The Limits of Self-Determination: The Case of the Katanga Secession', American Political Science Review, 56:2 (1962), pp. 404-16, the 80 per cent figure is given on p. 405.
39. Leonce Ndikumana and Kisangani Emizet, 'The Economics of Civil War: The Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo', in P. Collier and N. Sambanis (eds), Understanding Civil War, Volume 1: Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2005), p. 67.
40. An alternate presentation of this narrative might focus considerably more attention on the role of the UN and superpowers. Certainly that is true of standard summaries of this period as recorded in IR datasets (see below). A transnational focus emphasising the UN might contradict my claims of the usefulness of neo-realism in explaining the First Congo Crisis.
41. The quotes are from, respectively, Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 336;
42. Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila, p. 106;
43. and Kaplan, Congo, p. 49.
44. Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 336.
45. Young, Politics in the Congo, pp. 329-31.
46. Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 330.
47. Young, Politics in the Congo, pp. 331-3.
48. Kaplan, Zaire, p. 49.
49. Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 542;
50. and Ndikumana and Emizet, 'The Economies of Civil War', p. 67.
51. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, chap. 5.
52. Discussion of this alliance is offered in Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 332;
53. Kaplan, Zaire, p. 49;
54. and Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila, p. 121.
55. A clear neo-realist statement of the presence of a common enemy enhancing the prospects for cooperation is found in Joseph Grieco, 'Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation', International Organization, 42:3 (1988), pp. 485-507, and particularly on p. 501.
56. Young, Politics in the Congo, pp. 542-3.
57. For example, Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War (New York: Modern Library Edition, 1951), p. 331.
58. These dates are from Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 359;
59. and Ndikumana and Emizet, 'The Economics of Civil War', p. 68.
60. Young, Politics in Congo, pp. 342-3;
61. and Ndikumana and Emizet, 'The Economics of Civil War', p. 67.
62. Mulele's training is chronicled in Kaplan, Zaire, p. 52;
63. and the quote is from Callaghy, The State-Society Struggle, p. 156.
64. The quotes may be found, respectively, at Ndikumana and Emizet, 'Economics of Civil War', p. 70;
65. and Young and Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 57.
66. Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila, p. 132.
67. Grieco, 'Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation'.
68. Callaghy, The State-Society Struggle, pp. 158-60.
69. Ndikumana and Emizet, 'Economics of Civil War', p. 69.
70. Mercenaries and American airlift assistance is from Callaghy, State-Society Struggle, p. 160;
71. Kwilu holdouts are described in Nzongola-Ntalaja, Congo from Leopold to Kabila, p. 129.
72. Nzongola-Ntalaja, Congo from Leopold to Kabila, pp. 132-4.
73. Young and Turner, Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 250.
74. Ndikumana and Emizet, 'Economics of Civil War', p. 64.
75. COW coding criteria for war were originally presented in J. David Singer and Melvin Small, The Wages of War 1816-1965: A Statistical Handbook (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1972), chap. 2.
76. For COW's MID coding criteria see Faten Ghosn, Glenn Palmer, and Stuart Bremer, 'The MID3 Data Set, 1993-2001: Procedures, Coding Rules, and Description', Conflict Management and Peace Science, 21:2 (2004) pp. 133-54. (Pubitemid 39129935)
77. Young, Politics in the Congo, p. 352.
78. Neither COW nor ATOP alliance datasets mention any of these alliances. For the COW alliance data see Douglas Gibler and Meredith Reid Sarkees, 'Measuring Alliances: The Correlates of War Formal Interstate Alliance Dataset', Journal of Peace Research, 42:2 (2004), pp. 211-22. (Pubitemid 38397438)
79. For ATOP see Brett Ashley Leeds et al., 'Alliance Treaty Obligations and Provisions', International Interactions, 28:3 (2002), pp. 237-60.
80. See Meredith Reid Sarkees with Phil Shafer, 'The Correlates of War Data on War: An Update to 1997', Conflict Management and Peace Science, 18:1 (2000), pp. 123-44. (Pubitemid 33258321)
81. See Nils Petter Gleditsch et al., 'Armed Conflict 1946-2001', Journal of Peace Research, 39:5 (2002), pp. 615-37.
82. For ICB see Michael Brecher and Jonathan Wilkenfeld, A Study of Crisis (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
83. Returning to the variability of Africanist critiques, many scholars specialising in African IR would readily agree that a focus on a wider range of actors would greatly clarify empirical findings about African IR. My claims here, in one form or another, are consistent with past work such as Mohammed Ayoob, The Third World Security Predicament (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995);
84. the various contributors to Christopher Clapham (ed.), African Guerrillas (Oxford: James Currey, 1998);
85. and William Reno, Warlord States in Tropical Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998).
86. Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', p. 121; similar comments are found on p. 127 as well.
87. Callaghy, The State-Society Struggle, p. xii.
88. See Charles Tilly, (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975);
89. and Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992). An enormous literature building on Tilly's war-and-state-making perspective includes
90. Bruce Porter, War and the Rise of the State (New York: The Free Press, 1994);
91. Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994);
92. Janice Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994);
93. Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996);
94. Victor Lee Burke, The Clash of Civilizations: War-Making and State Formation in Europe (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997);
95. and Robert Bates, Prosperity and Violence (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2001).
96. Georg Sorenson, 'War and State Making: Why Doesn't It Work in the Third World?', Security Dialogue, 32:3 (2001), pp. 341-54.
97. Ayoob, The Third World Security Predicament; Herbst, States and Power in Africa.
98. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994).
99. Englebert, State Legitimacy and Development in Africa.
100. Assis Malaquis, 'Reformulating International Relations Theory', in K. Dunn and T. Shaw (eds), Africa's Challenge to International Relations Theory (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 11;
101. Larry Swatuk, 'The Brothers Grim: Modernity and International Relations in Southern Africa', in Dunn and Shaw (eds), p. 172;
102. Carolyn Warner, 'The Rise of the State System in Africa', Review of International Studies, 27:4 (2001), pp. 65-89; (Pubitemid 33816724)
103. Reno, Warlord States in Tropical Africa.
104. Miguel Angel Centeno, Blood and Debt: War and the Nation-State in Latin America (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002).
105. Cameron Thies, 'War, Rivalry, and State Building in Latin America', American Journal of Political Science, 49:3 (2005), pp. 451-65; (Pubitemid 41638767)
106. and Cameron Thies, 'The Political Economy of State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa', Journal of Politics, 69:3 (2007), pp. 716-31.
107. Cameron Thies, 'National Design and State Building in Sub-Saharan Africa', World Politics, 61:4 (2009), pp. 623-69;
108. and Herbst, States and Power in Africa.
109. Andrew Kirby and Michael Ward, 'Modernity and the Process of State Formation', International Interactions, 17:1 (1991), pp. 113-26.
110. Young and Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, pp. 63-71.
111. Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila, pp. 132-4.
112. A dozen or so recent candidate APEs have been documented and had their state making efforts discussed by: Clapham, 'Degrees of Statehood';
113. Clapham, African Guerrillas;
114. and Paul Jackson, 'Warlords as Alternative Forms of Governance', Small Wars and Insurgencies, 14:2 (2003), pp. 131-50.
115. Brown, 'Africa and International Relations', pp. 129-30.
116. Douglas Lemke, 'Balancing Against Extinction: Alliance Politics Among Non-State Actors', in G. Palmer (ed.), The Causes of International Conflict (London: Routledge, 2008);
117. Douglas Lemke, 'Power Politics and Wars Without States', American Journal of Political Science, 52:4 (2008), pp. 774-86;
118. and Douglas Lemke, 'The Births and Deaths of De Facto States', unpublished manuscript (Pennsylvania State University, 2010).