Variation and variability: Key words in human motor development

Physical Therapy

Volumn 90, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 1823-1837

  Hadders Algra, Mijna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HUMAN; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MUSCULOSKELETAL DEVELOPMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

BRAIN; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES; HUMANS; MOTOR SKILLS; MUSCULOSKELETAL DEVELOPMENT;

EID: 79952116719     PISSN: 00319023     EISSN: 15386724     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2522/ptj.20100006     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Krubitzer L, Kaas J. The evolution of the neocortex in mammals: how is phenotypic diversity generated? Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15:444-453. (Pubitemid 41074765)
2. Rakic P. Evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10:724-735.
3. Frahm HD, Stephan H, Stephan M. Comparison of brain structure volumes in insectivora and primates, I: neocortex. J Hirnforsch. 1982;23:375-389. (Pubitemid 13149755)
4. Zhang K, Sejnowski TJ. A universal scaling law between gray matter and white matter of cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97:5621-5626. (Pubitemid 30313768)
5. De Graaf-Peters VB, Hadders-Algra M. Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: what is happening when? Early Hum Dev. 2006;82:257-266.
6. Bystron I, Blakemore C, Rakic P. Development of the human cerebral cortex: Boulder Committee revisited. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9:110-122.
7. Métin C, Vallee RB, Rakic P, Bhide PG. Modes and mishaps of neuronal migration in the mammalian brain. J Neurosci. 2008;28:11746-11752.
8. Kostovic I, Rakic P. Developmental history of the transient subplate zone in the visual and somatosensory cortex of the macaque monkey and human brain. J Comp Neurol. 1990;297:441-470. (Pubitemid 20222635)
9. Kostovic I, Judas M. Prolonged coexistence of transient and permanent circuitry elements in the developing cerebral cortex of fetuses and preterm infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48: 388-393.
10. Kostovic I, Judas M. Transient patterns of cortical lamination during prenatal life: do they have implications for treatment? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31:1157-1168. (Pubitemid 350167475)
11. Tessier-Lavigne M, Goodman CS. The molecular biology of axon guidance. Science. 1996;274:1123-1133. (Pubitemid 26389268)
12. Jan YN, Jan LY. The control of dendrite development. Neuron. 2003;40:229-242. (Pubitemid 37244094)
13. Sowell ER, Trauner DA, Gamst A, Jernigan TL. Development of cortical and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: a structural MRI study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:4-16. (Pubitemid 34051455)
14. Lossi L, Merighi A. In vivo cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuronal apoptosis in the mammalian CNS. Prog Neurobiol. 2003;69:287-312. (Pubitemid 36645051)
15. Polleux F. Genetic mechanisms specifying cortical connectivity: let's make some projections together. Neuron. 2005;46: 395-400. (Pubitemid 40616882)
16. Changeux JP. Variation and selection in neural function. Trends Neurosci. 1997; 20:291-293.
17. Krubitzer L, Kahn DM. Nature versus nurture revisited: an old idea with a new twist. Prog Neurobiol. 2003;70:33-52. (Pubitemid 36966640)
18. Diamond A. The interplay of biology and the environment broadly defined. Dev Psychol. 2009;45:1-8.
19. Kolb B, Forgie M, Gibb R, et al. Age, experience and the changing brain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1998;22:143-159. (Pubitemid 28194374)
20. Buss RR, Sun W, Oppenheim RW. Adaptive roles of programmed cell death during nervous system development. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2006;29:1-35. (Pubitemid 44476838)
21. Martin JH, Friel KM, Salimi I, Chakrabarty S. Activity- and use-dependent plasticity of the developing corticospinal system. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31: 1125-1135. (Pubitemid 350160949)
22. Stoeckel MC, Seitz RJ, Buetefisch CM. Congenitally altered motor experience alters somatotopic organization of human primary motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106:2395-2400.
23. Gesell A, Amatruda CS. Developmental Diagnosis: Normal and Abnormal Child Development. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1947.
24. Hadders-Algra M. The neuronal group selection theory: an attractive framework to explain variation in normal motor development. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:566-572. (Pubitemid 30612122)
25. Thelen E. Motor development: a new synthesis. Am Psychol. 1995;50:79-95.
26. Ulrich BD. Dynamic systems theory and skill development in infants and children. In: Connolly KJ, Forssberg H, eds. Neurophysiology and Neuropsychology of Motor Development. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 143-144. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press; 1997: 319-345.
27. Smith LB, Thelen E. Development as a dynamic system. Trends Cogn Sci. 2003; 7:343-348. (Pubitemid 36952415)
28. Edelman GM. Neural Darwinism: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 1989.
29. Edelman GM. Neural Darwinism: selection and reentrant signaling in higher brain function. Neuron. 1993;10:115-125. (Pubitemid 23079535)
30. Greenough WT, Black JE, Wallace CS. Experience and brain development. Child Dev. 1987;58:539-559.
31. Hadders-Algra M, Brogren E, Forssberg H. Training affects the development of postural adjustments in sitting infants. J Physiol. 1996;493(pt 1):289-298. (Pubitemid 26152629)
32. Graybiel AM. The basal ganglia: learning new tricks and loving it. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15:638-644. (Pubitemid 41683155)
33. Bertenthal BI, Campos JJ, Kermoian R. An epigenetic perspective on the development of self-produced locomotion and its consequences. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 1994;3:141-145.
34. Higgins CI, Campos JJ, Kermoian R. Effect of self-produced locomotion on infant postural compensation to optic flow. Dev Psychol. 1996;32:836-841.
35. Adolph KE. Learning in the development of infant locomotion. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1997;62:I-VI, 1-158.
36. Hadders-Algra M, Brogren E, Forssberg H. Ontogeny of postural adjustments during sitting in infancy: variation, selection and modulation. J Physiol. 1996;493(pt 1): 273-288. (Pubitemid 26152628)
37. Hadders-Algra M, Brogren E, Forssberg H. Postural adjustments during sitting at preschool age: presence of a transient toddling phase. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1998;40:436-447. (Pubitemid 28327681)
38. Nelson PG, Fields RD, Yu C, Liu Y. Synapse elimination from the mouse neuromuscular junction in vitro: a non-Hebbian activity-dependent process.J Neurobiol. 1993;24:1517-1530. (Pubitemid 23306281)
39. Hebb DO. The Organization of Behaviour. New York, NY: Wiley; 1949.
40. Changeux JP, Danchin A. Selective stabilisation of developing synapses as a mechanism for the specification of neuronal networks. Nature. 1976;264:705-712.
41. Grillner S, Hellgren J, Ménard A, et al. Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs: roles for the striatum and pallidum. Trends Neurosci. 2005;28: 364-370. (Pubitemid 40853859)
42. Molinari M, Filippini V, Leggio MG. Neuronal plasticity of the interrelated cerebellar and cortical networks. Neuroscience. 2002;111:863-870. (Pubitemid 34603253)
43. Doyon J, Benali H. Reorganization and plasticity in the adult brain during learning of motor skills. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15:161-167. (Pubitemid 41569264)
44. Murray GK, Veijola J, Moilanen K, et al. Infant motor development is associated with adult cognitive categorisation in a longitudinal birth cohort study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:25-29.
45. Eishima K. The analysis of sucking behaviour in newborn infants. Early Hum Dev. 1991;27:163-173.
46. Hedberg Å, Carlberg EB, Forssberg H, Hadders-Algra M. Development of postural adjustments in sitting position during the first half year of life. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:312-320. (Pubitemid 40662870)
47. de Graaf-Peters VB, Bakker H, Van Eykern LA, et al. Postural adjustments and reaching in 4- and 6-month-old infants: an EMG and kinematical study. Exp Brain Res. 2007;181:647-656. (Pubitemid 47106416)
48. Cioni G, Duchini F, Milianti B, et al. Differences and variations in the patterns of early independent walking. Early Hum Dev. 1993;35:193-205. (Pubitemid 24053220)
49. Heineman KR, Middelburg KJ, Hadders-Algra M. Development of adaptive motor behaviour in typically developing infants. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99:618-624.
50. Weinstock M. Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Progr Neurobiol. 2001;65:427-451. (Pubitemid 33016408)
51. Holstege G. Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system: limbic and non-limbic components. Prog Brain Res. 1991;87:307-421.
52. Kolb B, Gibb R. Brain plasticity and recovery from early cortical injury. Dev Psychobiol. 2007;49:107-118. (Pubitemid 46474318)
53. Hadders-Algra M. Two distinct forms of minor neurological dysfunction: perspectives emerging from a review of data of the Groningen Perinatal Project. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:561-571.
54. Rosenbaum P, Paneth N, Leviton A, et al. A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006 [erratum in Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:480]. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl. 2007;109: 8-14. (Pubitemid 46336267)
55. Hadders-Algra M. The neuronal group selection theory: promising principles for understanding and treating developmental motor disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:707-715.
56. Ingram TTS. The neurology of cerebral palsy. Arch Dis Child. 1966;41:337-357.
57. Touwen BC. How normal is variable, or now variable is normal? Early Hum Dev. 1993;34:1-12.
58. Hadders-Algra M. General movements: a window for early identification of children at high risk for developmental disorders. J Pediatr. 2004;145(2 suppl): S12-S18. (Pubitemid 39066210)
59. Hadders-Algra M, Brogren E, Katz-Salamon M, Forssberg H. Periventricular leukomalacia and preterm birth have different detrimental effects on postural adjustments. Brain. 1999;122(pt 4):727-740. (Pubitemid 29158779)
60. van der Heide JC, Fock JM, Otten B, et al. Kinematic characteristics of postural control during reaching in preterm children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Res. 2005;58:586-593. (Pubitemid 41254529)
61. Latash ML, Anson JG. What are "normal movements" in atypical populations? Behav Brain Sci. 1996;19:55-68.
62. Yekutiel M, Jariwalda M, Stretch P. Sensory deficit in the hands of children with cerebral palsy: a new look at assessment and prevalence. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36:619-624. (Pubitemid 24182768)
63. Guzetta A, Mercuri E, Cioni G. Visual disorders in children with brain lesions: 2. visual impairment associated with cerebral palsy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2001; 5:115-119. (Pubitemid 32677099)
64. McLaughlin JF, Felix SD, Nowbar S, et al. Lower extremity sensory function in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Rehabil. 2005;8:45-52. (Pubitemid 40127951)
65. Himmelmann K, Beckung E, Hagberg G, Uvebrant P. Gross and fine motor function and accompanying impairments in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:417-423. (Pubitemid 43740900)
66. Gordon AM, Charles J, Steenbergen B. Fingertip force planning during grasp is disrupted by impaired sensorimotor integration in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Pediatr Res. 2006;60:587-591. (Pubitemid 44627407)
67. Eliasson AC, Gordon AM, Forssberg H. Impaired anticipatory control of isometric forces during grasping by children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34:216-225.
68. Smits-Engelsman BC, Rameckers EA, Duysens J. Muscle force generation and force control of finger movements in children with spastic hemiplegia during isometric tasks. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:337-342. (Pubitemid 40662873)
69. Valvano J, Newell KM. Practice of a precision isometric grip-force task by children with spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1998;40:464-473. (Pubitemid 28327685)
70. Gordon AM, Schneider JA, Chinnan A, Charles JR. Efficacy of a hand-arm bimanual intensive therapy (HABIT) in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49;830-838. (Pubitemid 350020444)
71. Van den Bergh BR, Mulder EJ, Mennes M, Glover V. Antenatal maternal anxiety and stress and the neurobehavioural development of the fetus and child; links and possible mechanisms: a review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2005;29:237-258. (Pubitemid 40461742)
72. Cases O, Seif I, Grimsby J, et al. Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science. 1995;268: 1763-1766.
73. Cases O, Lebrand C, Giros B, et al. Plasma membrane transporters of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine mediate serotonin accumulation in atypical locations in the developming brain of monoamine oxidase A knock-outs. J Neurosci. 1998;18:6914-6927. (Pubitemid 28388021)
74. Gu Q, Singer W. Involvement of serotonin in developmental plasticity of kittenvisual cortex. Eur J Neurosci. 1995;7: 1146-1153.
75. van der Fits IB, Flikweert ER, Stremmelaar EF, et al. Development of postural adjustments during reaching in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1999;46:1-7. (Pubitemid 29293888)
76. Heineman KR, La Bastide-van Gemert S, Fidler V, et al. Construct validity of the Infant Motor Profile: relation with prenatal, perinatal and neonatal risk factors.Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010 Apr 30 [Epub ahead of print].
77. Lüchinger AB, Hadders-Algra M, van Kan CM, de Vries JI. Fetal onset of general movements. Pediatr Res. 2008;63:191-195.
78. Supèr H, Soriano E, Uylings HB.The functions of the preplate in development and evolution of the neocortex and hippocampus. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1998; 27:40-64. (Pubitemid 28300282)
79. Hadders-Algra M. Putative neural substrate of normal and abnormal general movements. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31:1181-1190. (Pubitemid 350160942)
80. de Vries JI, Fong BF. Normal fetal motility: an overview. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2006;27:701-711. (Pubitemid 43967376)
81. Prechtl HFR. Continuity of Neural Functions Form Prenatal to Postnatal Life. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 94. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1984.
82. Rubinstein M, Denays R, Ham HR, et al. Functional imaging of brain maturation in humans using Iodine-123 idoamphetamine and SPECT. J Nucl Med. 1989;30: 1982-1985. (Pubitemid 20024317)
83. Touwen BCL. Neurological Development in Infancy. Clinics of Developmental Medicine No. 58. London, United Kingdom: Heinemann Medical Books; 1976.
84. Smith BA, Stergiou N, Ulrich BD. Lyapunov exponent and surrogation analysis of patterns of variability: profiles in new walkers with and without Down syndrome.Motor Control. 2010;14:126-142.
85. McGraw MB. The Neuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant, 1943. Reprinted: Classics in Developmental Medicine, No. 4. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press; 1989.
86. Capute AJ, Shapiro BK, Palmer FB, et al. Cognitive motor interactions: the relationship of infant gross motor attainment to IQ at 3 years. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1985;24:671-675. (Pubitemid 16208283)
87. Hadders-Algra M. Development of postural control. In: Hadders-Algra M, Brogren Carlberg E, eds. Postural Control: A Key Issue in Developmental Disorders. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 179. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press, 2008:22-73.
88. Massion J. Postural control systems in developmental perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1998;22:465-472. (Pubitemid 28213597)
89. Forssberg H, Hirschfeld H. Postural adjustments in sitting humans following external perturbations: muscle activity and kinematics. Exp Brain Res. 1994;97: 515-527. (Pubitemid 24096380)
90. Hedberg Å, Forssberg H, Hadders-Algra M. Postural adjustments due to external perturbations during sitting in 1-monthold infants: evidence for the innate origin of direction specificity. Exp Brain Res. 2004;157:10-17. (Pubitemid 38916466)
91. Bhat AN, Galloway JC. Toy-oriented changes during early arm movements: hand kinematics. Infant Behav Dev. 2006;29:358-372. (Pubitemid 43811819)
92. Von Hofsten C. Eye-hand coordination in the newborn. Dev Psychol. 1982;18:450-461.
93. von Hofsten C. Development of visually directed reaching: the approach phase. Journal of Human Movement Studies. 1979;5:160-178. (Pubitemid 10051240)
94. von Hofsten C, Fazel-Zandy S. Development of visually guided hand orientation in reaching. J Exp Child Psychol. 1984; 38:208-219.
95. Lemon RN, Kirkwood PA, Maier MA, et al. Direct and indirect pathways for corticospinal control of upper limb motoneurons in the primate. Prog Brain Res. 2004;143:263-279. (Pubitemid 37443001)
96. Yang JF, Gorassini M. Spinal and brain control of human walking: implications for retraining of walking. Neuroscientist. 2006;12:379-389. (Pubitemid 44316317)
97. Forssberg H. Ontogeny of human locomotor control. I. infant stepping, supported locomotion and transition to independent locomotion. Exp Brain Res. 1985;57:480-493.
98. Zelazo PR. The development of walking: new findings and old assumptions. J Mot Behav. 1983;2:99-137.
99. Forssberg H, Dietz V. Neurobiology of normal and impaired locomotor development. In: Connolly KJ, Forssberg H, eds. Neurophysiology and Neuropsychology of Motor Development. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 143-144. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press, 1997:78-100.
100. Müller K, Ebner B, Hömberg V. Maturation of fastest afferent and efferent central and peripheral pathways: no evidence for a constancy of central conduction delay. Neurosci Lett. 1994; 166:9-12. (Pubitemid 24047887)
101. Prechtl HF. General movement assessment as a method of developmental neurology; new paradigms and their consequences: The 1999 Ronnie MacKeith lecture. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2001;43: 836-842. (Pubitemid 33138231)
102. de Groot L. Posture and motility in preterm infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:65-68. (Pubitemid 30009144)
103. Harris SR. Congenital hypotonia: clinical and developmental assessment. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50:889-892.
104. Hadders-Algra M, Heineman KR, Bos AF, Middelburg KJ. The assessment of minor neurological dysfunction using the Touwen Infant Neurological Examination: strengths and limitations. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010;52:87-92.
105. Spittle AJ, Brown NC, Doyle LW, et al. Quality of general movements is related to white matter pathology in very preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2008;121: e1184-e1189.
106. Amiel-Tison C, Gosselin J. Neurological Development From Birth to Six Years. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2001.
107. Hadders-Algra M. Reduced variability in motor behaviour: an indicator of impaired cerebral connectivity? Early Hum Dev. 2008;84:787-789.
108. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, et al. Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39:214-223. (Pubitemid 27226331)
109. Brogren Carlberg E, Hadders-Algra M. Postural control in sitting children with cerebral palsy. In: Hadders-Algra M, Brogren Carlberg E, eds. Postural Control:A Key Issue in Developmental Disorders. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 179. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press; 2008:74-96.
110. Heineman KR, Hadders-Algra M. Evaluation of neuromotor function in infancy: a systematic review of available methods. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2008;29:315-323.
111. Darrah J, Senthilselvan A, Magill-Evans J. Trajectories of serial motor scores of typically developing children: implications for clinical decision making. Infant Behav Dev. 2009;32:72-78.
112. Bayley N. Scales of Infant Development. 3rd ed. San Antonio, TX: Psych Corp, Harcourt Assessment Inc; 2005.
113. Piper MC, Darrah J. Motor Assessment of the Developing Infant. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1994.
114. Campbell SK, Kolobe TH, Osten ET, et al. Construct validity of the test of infant motor performance. Phys Ther. 1995;75: 585-596.
115. Einspieler C, Prechtl HFR, Bos AF, et al. Prechtl's Method on the Qualitative Assessment of General Movements in Preterm, Term and Young Infants. Clinics of Developmental Medicine No. 167. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press; 2005.
116. Heineman KR, Bos AF, Hadders-Algra M. The Infant Motor Profile: a standardized and qualitative method to assess motor behaviour in infancy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008:50:275-282. (Pubitemid 351436792)
117. Stahlmann N, Härtel C, Knopp A, et al. Predictive value of neurodevelopmental assessment versus evaluation of general movements for motor outcome in preterm infants with birth weights 1500 g. Neuropediatrics. 2007;38:91-99. (Pubitemid 47434503)
118. Groen SE, de Blécourt AC, Postema K, Hadders-Algra M. General movements in early infancy predict neuromotor development at 9 to12 years of age. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:731-738. (Pubitemid 41600071)
119. Hadders-Algra M, Bouwstra H, Groen SE. Quality of general movements and psychiatric morbidity at 9 to 12 years. Early Hum Dev. 2009;85:1-6.
120. Bouwstra H, Dijck-Stigter GR, Grooten HMJ, et al. Predictive value of definitely abnormal general movements in the general population. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010;52:456-461.
121. Volpe JJ. Brain injury in premature infants: a complex amalgam of destructive and developmental disturbances. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8:110-124.
122. Blauw-Hospers CH, de Graaf-Peters VB, Dirks T, et al. Does early intervention in infants at high risk for a developmental motor disorder improve motor and cognitive development? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007; 31:1201-1212. (Pubitemid 350160945)
123. de Graaf-Peters VB, Blauw-Hospers CH, Dirks T, et al. Development of postural control in typically developing children and children with cerebral palsy: possibilities for intervention? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31:1191-1200. (Pubitemid 350160944)