Preventing type 2 diabetes mellitus: Room for residual risk reduction after lifestyle changes?

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 16, Issue 34, 2010, Pages 3839-3847

  Athyros, V G ^a   Tziomalos, K ^b   Karagiannis, A ^a   Mikhailidis, D P ^b  

^a ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Greece)

^b ROYAL FREE AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Impaired fasting glucose; Impaired glucose tolerance; Insulin sensitivity and pancreatic cell preservation; Prevention; Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Indexed keywords

ACARBOSE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; BEZAFIBRATE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; EXENDIN 4; FENOFIBRATE; FLUINDOSTATIN; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 2; GLUCOSE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; METFORMIN; PIOGLITAZONE; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; RAMIPRIL; ROSIGLITAZONE; SIMVASTATIN; SITAGLIPTIN; TELMISARTAN; TETRAHYDROLIPSTATIN; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; VILDAGLIPTIN; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT;

BARIATRIC SURGERY; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CELL FUNCTION; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; EDEMA; FRAGILITY FRACTURE; GLUCOSE ABSORPTION; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LONG TERM CARE; LOW DRUG DOSE; NAUSEA; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; POPULATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SIDE EFFECT; WEIGHT GAIN; LIFESTYLE; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

BARIATRIC SURGERY; BLOOD GLUCOSE; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; LIFE STYLE; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; TRIGLYCERIDES;

EID: 79551640972     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138161210794455085     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Vaccaro O, Ruffa G, Imperatore G, et al. Risk of diabetes in the new diagnostic category of impaired fasting glucose. Diabetes Care 1999; 22: 1490-3.
2. Crandall JP, Knowler WC, Kahn SE, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. The prevention of type 2 diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008; 4: 382-93.
3. Rosenstock J, Foley JE, Rendell M, et al. Effects of the dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor vildagliptin on incretin hormones, islet function, and postprandial glycemia in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 30-5.
4. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393-403.
5. Goldberg RB, Temprosa M, Haffner S, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Effect of progression from impaired glucose tolerance to diabetes on cardiovascular risk factors and its amelioration by lifestyle and metformin intervention: the Diabetes Prevention Program randomized trial by the Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 726-32.
6. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, et al. Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1343-50.
7. Chiasson J-L, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. Acarbose for prevention of type 2: STOP NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 359: 2072-7.
8. DREAM Trial Investigators. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 368: 1096-105.
9. Liberopoulos EN, Tsouli S, Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf MS. Preventing type 2 diabetes in high risk patients: an overview of lifstyle an pharmacological measures. Curr Drug Targets 2006; 7: 211-28.
10. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group, Knowler WC, Fowler SE, et al. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet 2009; 374: 1677-86.
11. Lindström J, Ilanne-Parikka P, Peltonen M, et al. Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Sustained reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: follow-up of the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Lancet 2006; 368: 1673-9.
12. Kotseva K, Wood D, DeBacker G, et al. Cardiovascular prevention guidelines in daily practice: a comparison of EUROASPIRE I, II, and III surveys in eight European countries. Lancet 2009; 373: 929-40.
13. Steinberg BA, Bhatt DL, Mehta S, et al. Nine-year trends in achievement of risk factor goals in the US and European outpatients with cardiovascular disease. Am Heart J 2008; 156: 719-27.
14. Wajchenberg BL. Clinical approaches to preserve beta-cell function in diabetes. Adv Exp Med Biol 2010; 654: 515-35.
15. Bosi E, Lucottia P, Setolaa E, Montia L, Piattia PM. Incretin-based therapies in type 2 diabetes: A review of clinical results. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2008; 82 (Suppl 2): S102-7.
16. Holman RR. Assessing the potential for α-glucosidase inhibitors in prediabetic states. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1998; 40 (Suppl): S21-5.
17. Ostgren CJ, Lindblad U, Ranstam J, Melander A, Rastam L. Glycaemic control, disease duration and b-cell function in patients with type 2 diabetes in a Swedish community. Skaraborg Hypertension and Diabetes Project. Diabet Med 2002; 19: 125-9.
18. Butler AE, Janson J, Bonner-Weir S, Ritzel R, Rizza RA, Butler PC. β-Cell deficit and increased β-cell apoptosis in humans with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2003; 52: 102-10.
19. Poitout V, Robertson RP. Glucolipotoxicity: fuel excess and betacell dysfunction. Endocrinol Rev 2008; 29: 351-66.
20. Haataja L, Gurlo T, Huang CJ, Butler PC. Islet amyloid in type 2 diabetes, and the toxic oligomer hypothesis. Endocrinol Rev 2008; 29: 303-16.
21. Donath MY, Størling J, Berchtold LA, Billestrup N, Mandrup-Poulsen T. Cytokines and beta-cell biology: from concept to clinical translation. Endocrinol Rev 2008; 29: 334-50.
22. Abdul-Ghani M, DeFronzo RA. Fasting hyperglycemia impairs glucose- but not insulin-mediated suppression of glucagon secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 1778-84.
23. Holst JJ, Gromda J. Role of incretin hormones in the regulation of insulin secretion in diabetic and nondiabetic humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 287: E199-206.
24. Mattthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Teacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and β-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia 1985; 28: 412-9.
25. Bergman RN. Toward physiological understanding of glucose tolerance. Minimal-model approach. Lilly lecture. Diabetes 1989; 38: 1512-27.
26. Kitabchi AE, Temprosa M, Knowler WC, et al. The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Role of insulin secretion and sensitivity in the evolution of type 2 diabetes in the diabetes prevention program: effects of lifestyle intervention and metformin. Diabetes 2005; 54: 2404-14.
27. Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, et al. American Diabetes Association. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 753-9.
28. Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Papageorgiou AA, et al. Targeting vascular risk in patients with metabolic syndrome but without diabetes. Metabolism 2005; 54: 1065-74.
29. Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Didangelos TP, et al. Effect of multifactorial treatment on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in metabolic syndrome: a randomised study. Curr Med Res Opin 2006; 22: 873-83.
30. Leiter LA. Can thiazolidinediones delay disease progression in type2 diabetes? Curr Med Res Opin 2006; 22: 1193-201.
31. Balakumar P, Rose M, Ganti SS, Krishan P, Singh M. PPAR dual agonists: are they opening Pandora's Box? Pharmacol Res 2007; 56: 91-8.
32. Huss JM, Kelly DP. Nuclear receptor signaling and cardiac energetics. Circ Res 2004; 95: 568-78.
33. Buse JB. Glitazones and heart failure: critical appraisal for the clinician. Circulation 2003; 108: e57.
34. Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Fisman EZ. Dual and pan-peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) co-agonism: the bezafibrate lessons. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2005; 4: 1-5.
35. Staels B, Fruchart JC. Therapeutic roles of peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor agonists. Diabetes 2005; 54: 2460-70.
36. Barish GD, Narkar VA, Evans RM. PPAR delta: a dagger in the heart of the metabolic syndrome, J Clin Invest 2006; 116: 590-7.
37. Blaschke F, Takata Y, Caglayan E, Law RE, Hsueh WA. Obesity, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, and atherosclerosis in type 2 diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26: 28-40.
38. Kota BP, Huang TH, Roufogalis BD. An overview on biological mechanisms of PPARs. Pharmacol Res 2005; 51: 85-94.
39. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland D, et al. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial in macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1279-89.
40. Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, et al. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 2427-43.
41. Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 2457-71.
42. Hanley AJ, Zinman B, Sheridan P, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC. Diabetes Reduction Assessment With Ramipril and Rosiglitazone Medication (DREAM) Investigators. Effect of Rosiglitazone and Ramipril on {beta}-cell function in people with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: the DREAM trial. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 608-13.
43. Zinman B, Harris SB, Neuman J, et al. Low-dose combination therapy with rosiglitazone and metformin to prevent type 2 diabetes mellitus (CANOE trial): a double-blind randomized controlled study. Lancet 2010; 376: 103-11.
44. Seufert J. A fixed-dose combination of pioglitazone and metformin: A promising alternative in metabolic control. Curr Med Res Opin 2006; 22 (Suppl 2): S39-48.
45. Rizos CV, Liberopoulos EN, Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf MS. Pleiotropic effects of thiazolidinediones. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2008; 9: 1087-108.
46. Schwartz S. Targeting the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes: rationale for combination therapy with pioglitazone and exenatide. Curr Med Res Opin 2008 Sep 30 [Epub ahead of print]
47. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M; STOP-NIDDM Trail Research Group. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 359: 2072-7.
48. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M. STOP-NIDDM Trial Research Group. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance. The STOP-NIDDM Trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 486-94.
49. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M; the STOP-NIDDM Trial Research Group. Acarbose for the prevention of Type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance: facts and interpretations concerning the critical analysis of the STOP-NIDDM Trial data. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 969-75.
50. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 790-7.
51. Eriksson KF, Lindgärde F. Prevention of type 2 (non-insulindependent) diabetes mellitus by diet and physical exercise. The 6- year Malmö feasibility study. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 891-8.
52. Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, et al. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and diabetes study. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 537-44.
53. Torgerson JS. Preventing diabetes in the obese: the XENDOS study and its context. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis 2004; 4: 22-7.
54. Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, et al. XENical in the prevention of Diabetes in Obese Subjects (XENDOS) study. A randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 155-61.
55. Krentz AJ. Management of type 2 diabetes in the obese patient: current concerns and emerging therapies. Curr Med Res Opin 2008; 24: 401-17.
56. Klonoff DC, Buse JB, Nielsen LL, et al. Exenatide effects on diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular risk factors and hepatic biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes treated for at least 3 years. Curr Med Res Opin 2008; 24: 275-86.
57. Fontaine KR, Redden DT, Wang C, Westfall AO, Allison DB. Years of life lost due to obesity. JAMA 2003; 289: 187-93.
58. Waseem T, Mogensen KM, Lautz DB, Robinson MK. Pathophysiology of obesity: why surgery remains the most effective treatment. Obes Surg 2007; 17: 1389-98.
59. Hollenbeak CS, Rogers AM, Barrus B, Wadiwala I, Cooney RN. Surgical volume impacts bariatric surgery mortality: A case for centers of excellence. Surgery 2008; 144: 736-43.
60. Buchwald H, Avidor Y, Braunwald E, et al. Bariatric surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2004; 292: 1724-37.
61. Pories WJ. Bariatric surgery: risks and rewards. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93 (Suppl 1): S89-96.
62. Alderman MH. New onset diabetes during antihypertensive therapy. Am J Hypertens 2008; 21: 493-9.
63. Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP, Kakafika AI, Tziomalos K, Athyros VG. Atenolol: differences in mode of action compared with other antihypertensives. An opportunity to identify features that influence outcome? Curr Pharm Des 2007; 13: 229-39.
64. Karagiannis A, Athyros VG, Papageorgiou A, Tziomalos K, Elisaf M. Should atenolol still be recommended as first-line therapy for primary hypertension? Hellenic J Cardiol 2006; 47: 298-307.
65. Basile JN. Antihypertensive therapy, new-onset diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Int J Clin Pract 2009; 63: 656-66.
66. Iwai M, Horiuchi M. Role of renin-angiotensin system in adipose tissue dysfunction. Hypertens Res 2009; 32: 425-7.
67. Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG, et al. The role of renin-angiotensin system inhibition in the treatment of hypertension in metabolic syndrome: are all the angiotensin receptor blockers equal? Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 11: 191-205.
68. Andraws R, Brown DL. Effect of inhibition of the reninangiotensin system on development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (meta-analysis of randomized trials). Am J Cardiol 2007; 99: 1006-12.
69. Scheen AJ. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus through inhibition of the Renin-Angiotensin system. Drugs 2004; 64: 2537-65.
70. DREAM Trial Investigators, Bosch J, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC, et al. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1551-62.
71. Rizos CV, Elisaf MS, Liberopoulos EN. Are the pleiotropic effects of telmisartan clinically relevant? Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15: 2815-32.
72. Rizos CV, Milionis HJ, Kostapanos MS, et al. Effects of rosuvastatin combined with olmesartan, irbesartan, or telmisartan on indices of glucose metabolism in Greek adults with impaired fasting glucose, hypertension, and mixed hyperlipidemia: a 24-week, randomized, open-label, prospective study. Clin Ther 2010; 32: 492-505.
73. Telmisartan Randomised AssessmeNt Study in ACE iNtolerant subjects with cardiovascular Disease (TRANSCEND) Investigators, Yusuf S, Teo K, Anderson C, et al. Effects of the angiotensinreceptor blocker telmisartan on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients intolerant to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2008; 372: 1174-83.
74. ONTARGET Investigators, Yusuf S, Teo KK, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1547-59.
75. Raz I, Eldor R, Cernea S, Shafrir E. Diabetes: insulin resistance and derangements in lipid metabolism. Cure through intervention in fat transport and storage. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2005; 21: 3-14.
76. Shafrir E, Raz I. For debate: Diabetes mellitus or lipidus? Diabetologia 2003; 46: 433-40.
77. Shafrir E, Gutman A. Patterns of decrease of free fatty acids during glucose tolerance tests. Diabetes 1965; 14: 77-83.
78. Itani SI, Ruderman NB, Schmieder F, Boden G. Lipid-induced insulin resistance in human muscle is associated with changes in diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, and IκB-α. Diabetes 2002; 51: 2005-11.
79. Rosenson RS, Huskin AL, Wolff DA, Helenowski IB, Rademaker AW. Fenofibrate reduces fasting and postprandial inflammatory responses among hypertriglyceridemia patients with the metabolic syndrome. Atherosclerosis 2008; 198: 381-8.
80. Rosenson RS. Fenofibrate reduces lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2 mass and oxidative lipids in hypertriglyceridemic subjects with the metabolic syndrome. Am Heart J 2008; 155: 499.e9-16.
81. Rosenson RS, Wolff DA, Huskin AL, Helenowski IB, Rademaker AW. Fenofibrate therapy ameliorates fasting and postprandial lipoproteinemia, oxidative stress, and the inflammatory response in subjects with hypertriglyceridemia and the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 1945-51.
82. Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Fisman EZ, et al. Peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor ligand bezafibrate for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 2004; 109: 2197-02.
83. Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Fisman EZ, et al. Effect of bezafibrate on incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in obese patients. Eur Heart J 2005; 26: 2032-8.
84. Tenenbaum H, Behar S, Boyko V, et al. Long-term effect of bezafibrate on pancreatic beta-cell function and insulin resistance in patients with diabetes. Atherosclerosis 2007; 194: 265-71.
85. Coleman CI, Reinhart K, Kluger J, White CM. The effect of statins on the development of new-onset type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Curr Med Res Opin 2008; 24: 1359-62.
86. Sattar N, Preiss D, Murray HM, et al. Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomised statin trials. Lancet 2010; 375: 735-42.
87. Liberopoulos EN, Athyros VG, Elisaf MS, Mikhailidis DP. Newonset diabetes after transplantation. Lancet 2005; 365: 1766.
88. Prasad GVR, Kim SJ, Huang M, et al. Reduced incidence of newonset diabetes mellitus after renal transplantation with 3-hydroxy- 3-methyglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins). Am J Transplant 2004; 4: 1897-1903.
89. Holdaas H, Fellstrφm B, Jardine AG, et al. Effect of fluvastatin on cardiac outcomes in renal transplant recipients: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361: 2024-31.
90. Gazi IF, Liberopoulos EN, Athyros VG, Elisaf M, Mikhailidis DP. Statins and solid organ transplantation. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12: 4771-83.
91. Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Papageorgiou AA, et al. The effect of statins versus untreated dyslipidaemia on renal function in patients with coronary heart disease: a subgroup analysis of the Greek atorvastatin and coronary heart disease evaluation (GREACE) study. J Clin Pathol 2004; 57: 728-34.
92. Mehra MR, Raval NY. Metaanalysis of statins and survival in de novo cardiac transplantation. Transplant Proc 2004; 36: 1539-41.
93. Kahn SE. Regulation of β-cell function in vivo: from health to disease. Diabetes Rev 1996; 4: 372-89.
94. Roder ME, Porte DJ, Schwartz RS, Kahn SE. Disproportionately elevated proinsulin levels reflect the degree of impaired β-cell secretory capacity in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 604-8.
95. Gerich JE. Is reduced first-phase insulin release the earliest detectable abnormality in individuals destined to develop type 2 diabetes? Diabetes 2002;51 (Suppl 1):S117-21.
96. Donath MY, Halban PA. Decreased β-cell mass in diabetes: significance, mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 581-9.
97. Kaiser N, Leibovitz G, Nesher R. Glucotoxicity and β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2003; 16: 5-22.
98. Gormley MJ, Hadden DR, Woods DR, Sheridan B, Andrews WJ. One month's insulin treatment of type II diabetes: the early and medium-term effects following insulin withdrawal. Metabolism 1986; 35: 1029-36.
99. Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2006; 368: 1696-705.
100. Ray JA, Boye KS, Yurgin N, et al. Exenatide versus insulin glargine in patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK: a model of long-term clinical and cost outcomes. Curr Med Res Opin 2007; 23: 609-22.
101. Pratley RE, Salsali A. Inhibition of DPP-4: a new therapeutic approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Curr Med Res Opin 2007; 23: 919-31.
102. Barnett A, Allsworth J, Jameson K, Mann R. A review of the effects of antihyperglycaemic agents on body weight: the potential of incretin targeted therapies. Curr Med Res Opin 2007; 23: 1493-507.
103. Leiter LA. Can thiazolidinediones delay disease progression in type2 diabetes? Curr Med Res Opin 2006; 22: 1193-201.
104. Estall JL, Drucker DJ. Glucagon and glucagon-like peptide receptors as drug targets. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12: 1731-50.
105. Bosi E, Camisaca RP, Collober C, Rochotte E, Garber AJ. Effects of vildagliptin on glucose control over 24 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 890-5.
106. Schweizer A, Couturier A, Foley JE, Dejager S. Comparison between vildagliptin and metformin to sustain reductions in HbA1c over 1 year in drug-naïve patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med 2007; 24: 955-61.
107. Nauck MA, Meininger G, Sheng D, Terranella L, Stein PP. Sitagliptin Study 024 Group. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin, compared with the sulfonylurea, glipizide, in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on metformin alone: a randomized, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Diabetes Obes Metab 2007; 9: 194-205.
108. Barnett AH. Translating science into clinical practice: focus on vildagliptin in combination with metformin. Diabetes Obes Metab 2009; 11 Suppl 2: 18-26.
109. de Valk HW. DPP-4 Inhibitors and combined treatment in Type 2 Diabetes: Re-evaluation of clinical success and safety. Rev Diabet Stud 2007; 4:126-33.
110. Fonseca V, Schweizer A, Albrecht D, Baron MA, Chang I, Dejager S. Addition of vildagliptin to insulin improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2007; 50: 1148-55.
111. Muscelli E, Mari A, Natali A, et al. Impact of incretin hormones on β-cell function in subjects with normal or impaired glucose tolerance. Am J Physiol 2006; 291: E1144-50.
112. Baggio LL, Drucker DJ. Therapeutic approaches to preserve islet mass in type 2 diabetes. Annu Rev Med 2006; 57: 265-81.
113. Riche DM, East HE, Riche KD. Impact of sitagliptin on markers of beta-cell function: a meta-analysis. Am J Med Sci 2009; 337: 321-8.
114. Duttaroy A, Voelker F, Ren X, et al. Head-to-head comparison of the DPP-4 inhibitor vildagliptin with exendin-4 in a model of pancreatic β-cell injury. Diabetes 2005; 54(Suppl 1): A66.
115. Hermansen K, Kipnes M, Luo E, et al. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled on glimepiride alone or on glimepiride and metformin. Diabetes Obes Metab 2007; 9: 733-45.
116. Drucker DJ. Glucagon-like peptides: regulators of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Mol Endocrinol 2003;17:161-71.
117. Herman WH, Hoerger TJ, Brandle M, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. The cost-effectiveness of lifestyle modification or metformin in preventing type 2 diabetes in adults with impaired glucose tolerance. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142: 323-32.
118. Eddy DM, Schlessinger L, Kahn R. Clinical outcomes and costeffectiveness of strategies for managing people at high risk for diabetes. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143: 251-64.
119. Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Shaw J. Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature 2001; 414: 782-7.
120. Ford ES, Capewell S. Coronary heart disease mortality among young adults in the US from 1980 through 2002: concealed leveling of mortality rates. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 2128-32.
121. O'Flaherty M, Ford E, Allender S, Scarborough P, Capewell S. Coronary heart disease trends in England and Wales from 1984 to 2004; concealed levelling of mortality rates among young adults. Heart 2008; 94: 178-81.
122. Jacobs-van der Bruggen MA, Bos G, Bemelmans WJ, Hoogenveen RT, Vijgen SM, Baan CA. Lifestyle interventions are cost-effective in people with different levels of diabetes risk: results from a modeling study. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 128-34.
123. Decode Study Group, the European Diabetes Epidemiology Group: Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality: comparison of fasting and 2-hour diagnostic criteria. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 397-405.
124. Moebus S, Stang A, Möhlenkamp S, et al. Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study Group. Association of impaired fasting glucose and coronary artery calcification as a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis in a population-based cohort--results of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Diabetologia 2009; 52: 81-9.
125. Bonora E. Protection of pancreatic beta-cells: is it feasible? Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2008; 18: 74-83.
126. Mozaffarian D, Kamineni A, Carnethon M, et al. Lifestyle risk factors and new-onset diabetes mellitus in older adults. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 798-807.
127. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes fact sheet: general information and national estimates on diabetes in the United States, 2005. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2005.
128. Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Lipidlowering agents and new onset diabetes mellitus. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010; 11: 1965-70.
129. Chiasson JL, Brindisi MC, Rabasa-Lhoret R. The prevention of type 2 diabetes: what is the evidence? Minerva Endocrinol 2005; 30: 179-91.