Proteome analysis of biological fluids from autoimmune-rheumatological disorders

Proteomics - Clinical Applications

Volumn 5, Issue 1-2, 2011, Pages 78-89

  De Franceschi, Lucia ^a   Bosello, Silvia ^b   Scambi, Cinzia ^a   Biasi, Domenico ^a   De Santis, Maria ^b   Caramaschi, Paola ^a   Peluso, Giusy ^b   La Verde, Valentina ^a   Bambara, Lisa Maria ^a   Ferraccioli, Gianfranco ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERONA   (Italy)

^b CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Rheumatoid arthritis; Sjogren's syndrome; Systemic lupus erythematosus; Systemic sclerosis

Indexed keywords

ALPHA DEFENSIN; BETA DEFENSIN; HAPTOGLOBIN; HEPCIDIN; INFLIXIMAB; RITUXIMAB;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE MARKER; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; HUMAN; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; LUNG ALVEOLITIS; LUNG LAVAGE; MATRIX ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION IONIZATION TIME OF FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY; MOLECULAR WEIGHT; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN DETERMINATION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN POLYMORPHISM; PROTEIN PROCESSING; PROTEOMICS; REVIEW; RHEUMATIC DISEASE; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SALIVA LEVEL; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SJOEGREN SYNDROME; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; SYSTEMIC SCLEROSIS; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; AUTOANTIBODIES; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; BODY FLUIDS; HUMANS; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC; PROTEOME; RHEUMATIC DISEASES; SALIVA; SCLERODERMA, SYSTEMIC; SJOGREN'S SYNDROME;

EID: 79251592854     PISSN: 18628346     EISSN: 18628354     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/prca.201000069     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Oddis, C. V., Conte, C. G., Steen, V. D., Medsger, T. A., Jr., Incidence of polymyositis-dermatomyositis: a 20-year study of hospital diagnosed cases in Allegheny County, PA 1963-1982. J. Rheumatol. 1990, 17, 1329-1334.
2. Garabrant, D. H., Dumas, C., Epidemiology of organic solvents and connective tissue disease. Arthritis Res. 2000, 2, 5-15.
3. Gabriel, S. E., Michaud, K., Epidemiological studies in incidence, prevalence, mortality, and comorbidity of the rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2009, 11, 229.
4. Rat, A. C., Boissier, M. C., Rheumatoid arthritis: direct and indirect costs. Joint Bone Spine 2004, 71, 518-524.
5. Myasoedova, E., Crowson, C. S., Kremers, H. M., Therneau, T. M., Gabriel, S. E., Is the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis rising?: results from Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1955-2007. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62, 1576-1582.
6. Soderlin, M. K., Borjesson, O., Kautiainen, H., Skogh, T., Leirisalo-Repo, M., Annual incidence of inflammatory joint diseases in a population based study in southern Sweden. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2002, 61, 911-915.
7. Gaubitz, M., Epidemiology of connective tissue disorders. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45, iii3-4.
8. Hu, S., Loo, J. A., Wong, D. T., Human saliva proteome analysis. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2007, 1098, 323-329.
9. Hu, S., Loo, J. A., Wong, D. T., Human body fluid proteome analysis. Proteomics 2006, 6, 6326-6353.
10. Fox, R. I., Sjogren's syndrome. Lancet 2005, 366, 321-331.
11. Alamanos, Y., Tsifetaki, N., Voulgari, P. V., Venetsanopoulou, A. I. et al., Epidemiology of primary Sjogren's syndrome in north-west Greece, 1982-2003. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45, 187-191.
12. Baldini, C., Giusti, L., Bazzichi, L., Lucacchini, A., Bombardieri, S., Proteomic analysis of the saliva: a clue for understanding primary from secondary Sjogren's syndrome? Autoimmun. Rev. 2008, 7, 185-191.
13. Chen, H., Xu, Z., Peng, L., Fang, X. et al., Recent advances in the research and development of human defensins. Peptides 2006, 27, 931-940.
14. Pisano, E., Cabras, T., Montaldo, C., Piras, V. et al., Peptides of human gingival crevicular fluid determined by HPLC-ESI-MS. Eur. J. Oral Sci. 2005, 113, 462-468.
15. Nguyen, C. Q., Peck, A. B., Unraveling the pathophysiology of Sjogren syndrome-associated dry eye disease. Ocul. Surf. 2009, 7, 11-27.
16. Ryu, O. H., Atkinson, J. C., Hoehn, G. T., Illei, G. G., Hart, T. C., Identification of parotid salivary biomarkers in Sjogren's syndrome by surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45, 1077-1086.
17. Giusti, L., Baldini, C., Bazzichi, L., Ciregia, F. et al., Proteome analysis of whole saliva: a new tool for rheumatic diseases--the example of Sjogren's syndrome. Proteomics 2007, 7, 1634-1643.
18. Peluso, G., De Santis, M., Inzitari, R., Fanali, C. et al., Proteomic study of salivary peptides and proteins in patients with Sjogren's syndrome before and after pilocarpine treatment. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 56, 2216-2222.
19. Hu, S., Wang, J., Meijer, J., Ieong, S. et al., Salivary proteomic and genomic biomarkers for primary Sjogren's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 56, 3588-3600.
20. Fleissig, Y., Deutsch, O., Reichenberg, E., Redlich, M. et al., Different proteomic protein patterns in saliva of Sjogren's syndrome patients. Oral Dis. 2009, 15, 61-68.
21. Li, S., Sack, R., Vijmasi, T., Sathe, S. et al., Antibody protein array analysis of the tear film cytokines. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2008, 85, 653-660.
22. Kawasaki, S., Kawamoto, S., Yokoi, N., Connon, C. et al., Up-regulated gene expression in the conjunctival epithelium of patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Exp. Eye Res. 2003, 77, 17-26.
23. Dunsche, A., Acil, Y., Siebert, R., Harder, J. et al., Expression profile of human defensins and antimicrobial proteins in oral tissues. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 2001, 30, 154-158.
24. Joly, S., Organ, C. C., Johnson, G. K., McCray, P. B., Jr., Guthmiller, J. M., Correlation between beta-defensin expression and induction profiles in gingival keratinocytes. Mol. Immunol. 2005, 42, 1073-1084.
25. Fox, R. I., Kang, H. I., Ando, D., Abrams, J., Pisa, E., Cytokine mRNA expression in salivary gland biopsies of Sjogren's syndrome. J. Immunol. 1994, 152, 5532-5539.
26. Tishler, M., Yaron, I., Shirazi, I., Yossipov, Y., Yaron, M., Increased salivary interleukin-6 levels in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatol. Int. 1999, 18, 125-127.
27. Tzioufas, A. G., Voulgarelis, M., Update on Sjogren's syndrome autoimmune epithelitis: from classification to increased neoplasias. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 2007, 21, 989-1010.
28. Hu, S., Zhou, M., Jiang, J., Wang, J. et al., Systems biology analysis of Sjogren's syndrome and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma in parotid glands. Arthritis Rheum. 2009, 60, 81-92.
29. Helmerhorst, E. J., Oppenheim, F. G., Saliva: a dynamic proteome. J. Dent. Res. 2007, 86, 680-693.
30. Messana, I., Cabras, T., Pisano, E., Sanna, M. T. et al., Trafficking and postsecretory events responsible for the formation of secreted human salivary peptides: a proteomics approach. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 2008, 7, 911-926.
31. Messana, I., Inzitari, R., Fanali, C., Cabras, T., Castagnola, M., Facts and artifacts in proteomics of body fluids. What proteomics of saliva is telling us? J. Sep. Sci. 2008, 31, 1948-1963.
32. Silman, A., Jannini, S., Symmons, D., Bacon, P., An epidemiological study of scleroderma in the West Midlands. Br. J. Rheumatol. 1988, 27, 286-290.
33. Koch, A. E., Distler, O., Vasculopathy and disordered angiogenesis in selected rheumatic diseases: rheumatoid arthritis and systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2007, 9, S3.
34. Sgonc, R., Gruschwitz, M. S., Boeck, G., Sepp, N. et al., Endothelial cell apoptosis in systemic sclerosis is induced by antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity via CD95. Arthritis Rheum. 2000, 43, 2550-2562.
35. Sambo, P., Baroni, S. S., Luchetti, M., Paroncini, P. et al., Oxidative stress in scleroderma: maintenance of scleroderma fibroblast phenotype by the constitutive up-regulation of reactive oxygen species generation through the NADPH oxidase complex pathway. Arthritis Rheum. 2001, 44, 2653-2664.
36. Sonnylal, S., Denton, C. P., Zheng, B., Keene, D. R. et al., Postnatal induction of transforming growth factor beta signaling in fibroblasts of mice recapitulates clinical, histologic, and biochemical features of scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 56, 334-344.
37. De Santis, M., Bosello, S., La Torre, G., Capuano, A. et al., Functional, radiological and biological markers of alveolitis and infections of the lower respiratory tract in patients with systemic sclerosis. Respir. Res. 2005, 6, 96.
38. Behr, J., Vogelmeier, C., Beinert, T., Meurer, M. et al., Bronchoalveolar lavage for evaluation and management of scleroderma disease of the lung. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1996, 154, 400-406.
39. Baughman, R. P., Raghu, G., Bronchoalveolar cellular analysis in scleroderma lung disease: does Sutton's law hold? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 177, 2-3.
40. Kowal-Bielecka, O., Kowal, K., Highland, K. B., Silver, R. M., Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in scleroderma interstitial lung disease: technical aspects and clinical correlations: review of the literature. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2010, 40, 73-88.
41. Rottoli, P., Magi, B., Perari, M. G., Liberatori, S. et al., Cytokine profile and proteome analysis in bronchoalveolar lavage of patients with sarcoidosis, pulmonary fibrosis associated with systemic sclerosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Proteomics 2005, 5, 1423-1430.
42. Rottoli, P., Magi, B., Cianti, R., Bargagli, E. et al., Carbonylated proteins in bronchoalveolar lavage of patients with sarcoidosis, pulmonary fibrosis associated with systemic sclerosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Proteomics 2005, 5, 2612-2618.
43. Fietta, A., Bardoni, A., Salvini, R., Passadore, I. et al., Analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid proteome from systemic sclerosis patients with or without functional, clinical and radiological signs of lung fibrosis. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2006, 8, R160.
44. Bargagli, E., Olivieri, C., Prasse, A., Bianchi, N. et al., Calgranulin B (S100A9) levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with interstitial lung diseases. Inflammation 2008, 31, 351-354.
45. Bogatkevich, G. S., Ludwicka-Bradley, A., Singleton, C. B., Bethard, J. R., Silver, R. M., Proteomic analysis of CTGF-activated lung fibroblasts: identification of IQGAP1 as a key player in lung fibroblast migration. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2008, 295, L603-L611.
46. Aden, N., Shiwen, X., Aden, D., Black, C. et al., Proteomic analysis of scleroderma lesional skin reveals activated wound healing phenotype of epidermal cell layer. Rheumatology 2008, 47, 1754-1760.
47. Giusti, L., Bazzichi, L., Baldini, C., Ciregia, F. et al., Specific proteins identified in whole saliva from patients with diffuse systemic sclerosis. J. Rheumatol. 2007, 34, 2063-2069.
48. Baldini, C., Giusti, L., Bazzichi, L., Ciregia, F. et al., Association of psoriasin (S100A7) with clinical manifestations of systemic sclerosis: is its presence in whole saliva a potential predictor of pulmonary involvement? J. Rheumatol. 2008, 35, 1820-1824.
49. De Santis, M., Peluso, G., Inzitari, R., Bosello, S. et al., Beta thymosins in scleroderma interstitial lung disease: biomarkers of alveolitis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2009, 68, 363.
50. Hannappel, E., beta-Thymosins. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2007, 1112, 21-37.
51. Inzitari, R., Cabras, T., Pisano, E., Fanali, C. et al., HPLC-ESI-MS analysis of oral human fluids reveals that gingival crevicular fluid is the main source of oral thymosins beta(4) and beta(10). J. Sep. Sci. 2009, 32, 57-63.
52. Sun, H. Q., Yin, H. L., The beta-thymosin enigma. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 2007, 1112, 45-55.
53. Brandwein, S. R., Medsger, T. A., Jr., Skinner, M., Sipe, J. D. et al., Serum amyloid A protein concentration in progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Ann. Rheum. Dis. 1984, 43, 586-589.
54. Scambi, C., La Verde, V., De Franceschi, L., Barausse, G. et al., Comparative proteomic analysis of serum from patients with systemic sclerosis and sclerodermatous GVDH. Evidence of defective function of factor H. PLoS ONE 2010, 13: e12162.
55. Abraham, D. J., Krieg, T., Distler, J., Distler, O., Overview of pathogenesis of systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009, 48, iii3-iii7.
56. Weyand, C. M., Xie, C., Goronzy, J. J., Homozygosity for the HLA-DRB1 allele selects for extraarticular manifestations in rheumatoid arthritis. J. Clin. Invest. 1992, 89, 2033-2039.
57. Panayi, G. S., B cells: a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005, 44, ii3-ii7.
58. Pratt, A. G., Isaacs, J. D., Mattey, D. L., Current concepts in the pathogenesis of early rheumatoid arthritis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 2009, 23, 37-48.
59. Boyer, G. S., Benevolenskaya, L. I., Templin, D. W., Erdesz, S. et al., Prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in circumpolar native populations. J. Rheumatol. 1998, 25, 23-29.
60. Symmons, D., Turner, G., Webb, R., Asten, P. et al., The prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in the United Kingdom: new estimates for a new century. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002, 41, 793-800.
61. Liao, H., Wu, J., Kuhn, E., Chin, W. et al., Use of mass spectrometry to identify protein biomarkers of disease severity in the synovial fluid and serum of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2004, 50, 3792-3803.
62. Perera, C., McNeil, H. P., Geczy, C. L., S100 Calgranulins in inflammatory arthritis. Immunol. Cell Biol. 2010, 88, 41-49.
63. Jin, E. H., Shim, S. C., Kim, H. G., Chae, S. C., Chung, H. T., Polymorphisms of COTL1 gene identified by proteomic approach and their association with autoimmune disorders. Exp. Mol. Med. 2009, 41, 354-361.
64. de Hostos, E. L., Bradtke, B., Lottspeich, F., Gerisch, G., Coactosin, a 17kDa F-actin binding protein from Dictyostelium discoideum. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 1993, 26, 181-191.
65. Provost, P., Doucet, J., Hammarberg, T., Gerisch, G. et al., 5-Lipoxygenase interacts with coactosin-like protein. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276, 16520-16527.
66. Li, T. W., Zheng, B. R., Huang, Z. X., Lin, Q. et al., Screening disease-associated proteins from sera of patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a comparative proteomic study. Chin. Med. J. (Engl) 2010, 123, 537-543.
67. Long, L., Li, R., Li, Y., Hu, C., Li, Z., Pattern-based diagnosis and screening of differentially expressed serum proteins for rheumatoid arthritis by proteomic fingerprinting. Rheumatol. Int. 2010, ePub ahead of print.
68. de Seny, D., Fillet, M., Meuwis, M. A., Geurts, P. et al., Discovery of new rheumatoid arthritis biomarkers using the surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry ProteinChip approach. Arthritis Rheum. 2005, 52, 3801-3812.
69. Loser, K., Vogl, T., Voskort, M., Lueken, A. et al., The Toll-like receptor 4 ligands Mrp8 and Mrp14 are crucial in the development of autoreactive CD8+T cells. Nat. Med. 2010, 16, 713-717.
70. Davis-Smyth, T., Duncan, R. C., Zheng, T., Michelotti, G., Levens, D., The far upstream element-binding proteins comprise an ancient family of single-strand DNA-binding transactivators. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 31679-31687.
71. He, L., Liu, J., Collins, I., Sanford, S. et al., Loss of FBP function arrests cellular proliferation and extinguishes c-myc expression. EMBO J. 2000, 19, 1034-1044.
72. Michael, V. V., Alisa, K. E., Cell cycle implications in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Front. Biosci. 2000, 5, D594-D601.
73. Pap, T., Nawrath, M., Heinrich, J., Bosse, M. et al., Cooperation of Ras- and c-Myc-dependent pathways in regulating the growth and invasiveness of synovial fibroblasts in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2004, 50, 2794-2802.
74. Goeb, V., Thomas-L'Otellier, M., Daveau, R., Charlionet, R. et al., Candidate autoantigens identified by mass spectrometry in early rheumatoid arthritis are chaperones and citrullinated glycolytic enzymes. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2009, 11, R38.
75. Serada, S., Fujimoto, M., Ogata, A., Terabe, F. et al., iTRAQ-based proteomic identification of leucine-rich alpha-2 glycoprotein as a novel inflammatory biomarker in autoimmune diseases. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2010, 69, 770-774.
76. Van Steendam, K., Tilleman, K., De Ceuleneer, M., De Keyser, F. et al., Citrullinated vimentin as an important antigen in immune complexes from synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis patients with antibodies against citrullinated proteins. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2010, 12, R132.
77. Zheng, X., Wu, S. L., Hincapie, M., Hancock, W. S., Study of the human plasma proteome of rheumatoid arthritis. J. Chromatogr. A 2009, 1216, 3538-3545.
78. Fabre, S., Guisset, C., Tatem, L., Dossat, N. et al., Protein biochip array technology to monitor rituximab in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2009, 155, 395-402.
79. Dwivedi, R. C., Dhindsa, N., Krokhin, O. V., Cortens, J. et al., The effects of infliximab therapy on the serum proteome of rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2009, 11, R32.
80. Trocme, C., Marotte, H., Baillet, A., Pallot-Prades, B. et al., Apolipoprotein A-I and platelet factor 4 are biomarkers for infliximab response in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2009, 68, 1328-1333.
81. Sekigawa, I., Yanagida, M., Iwabuchi, K., Kaneda, K. et al., Protein biomarker analysis by mass spectrometry in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody therapy. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 2008, 26, 261-267.
82. Petri, M., Systemic lupus erythematosus: 2006 update. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 2006, 12, 37-40.
83. Chakravarty, E. F., Bush, T. M., Manzi, S., Clarke, A. E., Ward, M. M., Prevalence of adult systemic lupus erythematosus in California and Pennsylvania in 2000: estimates obtained using hospitalization data. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 56, 2092-2094.
84. Lu, X. Y., Chen, X. X., Huang, L. D., Zhu, C. Q. et al., Anti-alpha-internexin autoantibody from neuropsychiatric lupus induce cognitive damage via inhibiting axonal elongation and promote neuron apoptosis. PLoS One 2010, 5, e11124.
85. Bauer, J. W., Baechler, E. C., Petri, M., Batliwalla, F. M. et al., Elevated serum levels of interferon-regulated chemokines are biomarkers for active human systemic lupus erythematosus. PLoS Med. 2006, 3, e491.
86. Hooks, J. J., Moutsopoulos, H. M., Geis, S. A., Stahl, N. I. et al., Immune interferon in the circulation of patients with autoimmune disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 1979, 301, 5-8.
87. Li, Q. Z., Zhou, J., Lian, Y., Zhang, B. et al., Interferon signature gene expression is correlated with autoantibody profiles in patients with incomplete lupus syndromes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2010, 159, 281-291.
88. Pavon, E. J., Munoz, P., Lario, A., Longobardo, V. et al., Proteomic analysis of plasma from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: increased presence of haptoglobin alpha2 polypeptide chains over the alpha1 isoforms. Proteomics 2006, 6, S282-S292.
89. Langlois, M. R., Delanghe, J. R., Biological and clinical significance of haptoglobin polymorphism in humans. Clin. Chem. 1996, 42, 1589-1600.
90. Suzuki, M., Ross, G. F., Wiers, K., Nelson, S. et al., Identification of a urinary proteomic signature for lupus nephritis in children. Pediatr. Nephrol. 2007, 22, 2047-2057.
91. Suzuki, M., Wiers, K., Brooks, E. B., Greis, K. D. et al., Initial validation of a novel protein biomarker panel for active pediatric lupus nephritis. Pediatr. Res. 2009, 65, 530-536.
92. Mosley, K., Tam, F. W., Edwards, R. J., Crozier, J. et al., Urinary proteomic profiles distinguish between active and inactive lupus nephritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45, 1497-1504.
93. Zhang, X., Jin, M., Wu, H., Nadasdy, T. et al., Biomarkers of lupus nephritis determined by serial urine proteomics. Kidney Int. 2008, 74, 799-807.
94. De Domenico, I., Zhang, T. Y., Koening, C. L., Branch, R. W. et al., Hepcidin mediates transcriptional changes that modulate acute cytokine-induced inflammatory responses in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 2010, 120, 2395-2405.
95. Ferrucci, L., Semba, R. D., Guralnik, J. M., Ershler, W. B. et al., Proinflammatory state, hepcidin, and anemia in older persons. Blood 2010, 115, 3810-3816.
96. Kim, H. R., Kim, K. W., Yoon, S. Y., Kim, S. H., Lee, S. H., Serum pro-hepcidin could reflect disease activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2010, 25, 348-352.
97. Nemeth, E., Rivera, S., Gabayan, V., Keller, C. et al., IL-6 mediates hypoferremia of inflammation by inducing the synthesis of the iron regulatory hormone hepcidin. J. Clin. Invest. 2004, 113, 1271-1276.
98. Aringer, M., Smolen, J. S., Cytokine expression in lupus kidneys. Lupus 2005, 14, 13-18.
99. Varghese, S. A., Powell, T. B., Budisavljevic, M. N., Oates, J. C. et al., Urine biomarkers predict the cause of glomerular disease. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007, 18, 913-922.