Pharmaceutical intervention for myopia control

Expert Review of Ophthalmology

Volumn 5, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 759-787

  Ganesan, Prema ^a   Wildsoet, Christine F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

animal models; atropine; clinical trials; dopamine; eye growth; growth factors; myopia

Indexed keywords

4 DIPHENYLACETOXY 1 METHYLPIPERIDINE; ADRENALIN; ATROPINE; BENZATROPINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; CARBACHOL; DEXETIMIDE; DICYCLOVERINE; GALLAMINE; HEXAHYDROSILADIFENIDOL; HIMBACINE; MEPENZOLATE; METHOCTRAMINE; METHYLXANTHINE; MUSCARINIC M1 RECEPTOR; MUSCARINIC M4 RECEPTOR; MUSCARINIC RECEPTOR; OTENZEPAD; OXYPHENONIUM BROMIDE; PARA FLUOROHEXAHYDROSILADIFENIDOL; PIRENZEPINE; PLACEBO; PROPANTHELINE BROMIDE; QUINUCLIDINYL BENZILATE; SCOPOLAMINE; TELENZEPINE; TIMOLOL MALEATE; TROPICAMIDE; UNINDEXED DRUG; [4 [(3 CHLOROPHENYL)CARBAMOYLOXY] 2 BUTYNYL]TRIMETHYLAMMONIUM;

ACCOMMODATION PARALYSIS; ALLERGIC REACTION; BIFOCAL LENS; BLINDNESS; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG TARGETING; EVENING DOSAGE; EYE DISCOMFORT; EYE DISEASE; EYE REFRACTION; HEADACHE; HUMAN; IN VITRO STUDY; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MULTIFOCAL LENS; MYDRIASIS; MYOPIA; NONHUMAN; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PHOTOPHOBIA; PIGMENT EPITHELIUM; RECEPTOR BLOCKING; RETINA DETACHMENT; REVIEW; SCLERA; SPECTACLES; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT;

EID: 78650086383     PISSN: 17469899     EISSN: 17469902     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/eop.10.67     Document Type: Review

References (246)

1. Ghafour IM, Allan D, Foulds WS. Common causes of blindness and visual handicap in the west of Scotland. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 67(4), 209-213 (1983).
2. Iwase A, Araie M, Tomidokoro A, Yamamoto T, Shimizu H, Kitazawa Y. Prevalence and causes of low vision and blindness in a Japanese adult population: the Tajimi Study. Ophthalmology 113(8), 1354-1362 (2006).
3. Buch H, Vinding T, Nielsen NV. Prevalence and causes of visual impairment according to World Health Organization and United States criteria in an aged, urban Scandinavian population: the Copenhagen City Eye Study. Ophthalmology 108(12), 2347-2357 (2001).
4. Xu L, Wang Y, Li Y et al. Causes of blindness and visual impairment in urban and rural areas in Beijing: the Beijing Eye Study. Ophthalmology 113(7), 1134.e1-11 (2006).
5. Cedrone C, Culasso F, Cesareo M et al. Incidence of blindness and low vision in a sample population: the Priverno Eye Study, Italy. Ophthalmology 110(3), 584-588 (2003).
6. Hsu WM, Cheng CY, Liu JH, Tsai SY, Chou P. Prevalence and causes of visual impairment in an elderly Chinese population in Taiwan: the Shihpai Eye Study. Ophthalmology 111(1), 62-69 (2004).
7. Lin LL, Shih YF, Hsiao CK, Chen CJ. Prevalence of myopia in Taiwanese schoolchildren: 1983 to 2000. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 33(1), 27-33 (2004).
8. Fan DS, Lam DS, Lam RF et al. Prevalence, incidence, and progression of myopia of school children in Hong Kong. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(4), 1071-1075 (2004).
9. Shelton L, Rada JS. Effects of cyclic mechanical stretch on extracellular matrix synthesis by human scleral fibroblasts. Exp. Eye Res. 84(2), 314-322 (2007).
10. Saw SM, Tong L, Chua WH et al. Incidence and progression of myopia in Singaporean school children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(1), 51-57 (2005).
11. Vitale S, Sperduto RD, Ferris FL 3rd. Increased prevalence of myopia in the United States between 1971-1972 and 1999-2004. Arch. Ophthalmol 127(12), 1632-1639 (2009).
12. Aller T. Myopia progression with bifocal soft contact lenses - a twin study. Optom. Vis. Sci. 77(S79) (2000).
13. Aller T, Grisham D. Myopia progression control using bifocal contact lenses. Optom. Vis. Sci.77(S187) (2000).
14. Aller TA, Wildsoet C. Bifocal soft contact lenses as a possible myopia control treatment: a case report involving identical twins. Clin. Exp. Optom. 91(4), 394-399 (2008).
15. Aller TA, Wildsoet C. Results of a one-year prospective clinical trial (CONTROL) of the use of bifocal soft contact lenses to control myopia progression. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 26(S1), 8-9 (2006).
16. Howell E. Comparison of multifocal contact lenses with multifocal spectacle lenses for myopia control. Presented at: 12th International Myopia Conference. Queensland, Australia, 8-12 July 2008.
17. Cho P, Cheung SW, Edwards M. The longitudinal orthokeratology research in children (LORIC) in Hong Kong: a pilot study on refractive changes and myopic control. Curr. Eye Res. 30(1), 71-80 (2005).
18. Walline JJ, Jones LA, Sinnott LT. Corneal reshaping and myopia progression. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 93(9), 1181-1185 (2009).
19. Myopia control moves forward. Optician 9 April 2010.
20. Gwiazda J, Hyman L, Hussein M et al. A randomized clinical trial of progressive addition lenses versus single vision lenses on the progression of myopia in children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(4), 1492-1500 (2003).
21. Gwiazda JE, Hyman L, Norton TT et al. Accommodation and related risk factors associated with myopia progression and their interaction with treatment in COMET children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(7), 2143-2151 (2004).
22. Fan DS, Lam DS, Chan CK, Fan AH, Cheung EY, Rao SK. Topical atropine in retarding myopic progression and axial length growth in children with moderate to severe myopia: a pilot study. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 51(1), 27-33 (2007).
23. Tong L, Huang XL, Koh AL, Zhang X, Tan DT, Chua WH. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: effect on myopia progression after cessation of atropine. Ophthalmology 116(3), 572-579 (2009).
24. Liang CK, Ho TY, Li TC et al. A combined therapy using stimulating auricular acupoints enhances lower-level atropine eyedrops when used for myopia control in school-aged children evaluated by a pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 16(6), 305-310 (2008).
25. Siatkowski RM, Cotter SA, Crockett RS, Miller JM, Novack GD, Zadnik K. Two-year multicenter, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled, parallel safety and efficacy study of 2% pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in children with myopia. J. AAPOS 12(4), 332-339 (2008).
26. Trier K, Munk Ribel-Madsen S, Cui D, Brogger Christensen S. Systemic 7-methylxanthine in retarding axial eye growth and myopia progression: a 36-month pilot study. J. Ocul. Biol. Dis. Infor. 1(2-4), 85-93 (2008).
27. Beasley R, Danesi M. Persuasive Signs: The Semiotics of Advertising. Mouton de Gruyer, Berlin, Germany (2002).
28. Bedrossian RH. Treatment of progressive myopia with atropine. Presented at: The XX International Congress of Ophthalmology. Munich, Germany, 14-19 August 1966.
29. Bedrossian RH. The effect of atropine on myopia. Ann. Ophthalmol. 3(8), 891-897 (1971).
30. Bedrossian RH. The effect of atropine on myopia. Ophthalmology 86(5), 713-719 (1979).
31. Kelly TS, Chatfield C, Tustin G. Clinical assessment of the arrest of myopia. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 59(10), 529-538 (1975).
32. Gimbel HV. The control of myopia with atropine. Can. J. Ophthal. 8, 527-532 (1973).
33. Edwards MH, Li RW, Lam CS, Lew JK, Yu BS. The Hong Kong progressive lens myopia control study: study design and main findings. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(9), 2852-2858 (2002).
34. Fulk GW, Cyert LA, Parker DE. A randomized trial of the effect of single-vision vs. bifocal lenses on myopia progression in children with esophoria. Optom. Vis. Sci. 77(8), 395-401 (2000).
35. Fulk GW, Cyert LA, Parker DE. A randomized clinical trial of bifocal glasses for myopic children with esophoria: esults after 54 months. Optometry 73(8), 470-476 (2002).
36. Goss DA, Grosvenor T. Rates of childhood myopia progression with bifocals as a function of nearpoint phoria: consistency of three studies. Optom. Vis. Sci. 67(8), 637-640 (1990).
37. Cheng D, Schmid KL, Woo GC, Drobe B. Randomized trial of effect of bifocal and prismatic bifocal spectacles on myopic progression: two-year results. Arch. Ophthalmol. 128(1), 12-19 (2010).
38. Shih Y-F, Hsiao CK, Chen C-J, Chang C-W, Hung PT, Lin LLK. An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 79(3), 233-236 (2001).
39. Brown B, Edwards MH, Leung JT. Is esophoria a factor in slowing of myopia by progressive lenses? Optom. Vis. Sci. 79(10), 638-642 (2002).
40. Romano PE, Donovan JP. Management of progressive school myopia with topical atropine eyedrops and photochromic bifocal spectacles. Binocul. Vis. Strabismus. Q. 15(3), 257-260 (2000).
41. Chiang MF, Kouzis A, Pointer RW, Repka MX. Treatment of childhood myopia with atropine eyedrops and bifocal spectacles. Binocul. Vis. Strabismus. Q. 16(3), 209-215 2001).
42. Chua W, Balakrishnan V, Chan Y; ATOM Study Group. ARVO Analysis of Safety Data for Atropine in the Treatment of Myopia (ATOM) study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 (2002) (E-Abstract 3329).
43. Chua W-H, Balakrishnan V, Chan Y-H et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia. Ophthalmology 113(12), 2285-2291 (2006).
44. Chua W, Balakrishnan V, Tan D, Chan Y; ATOM Study Group. Analysis of Safety Data for Atropine in the Treatment of Myopia (ATOM) study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(Suppl.), (2002) (E-Abstract 3329).
45. Bartlett JD, Niemann K, Houde B, Allred T, Edmondson MJ, Crockett RS. A tolerability study of pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in myopic children. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 19(3), 271-279 (2003).
46. Shih YE, Chen CH, Chou AC, Ho TC, Lin LLK, Hung PT. Effects of different concentrations of atropine on controlling myopia in myopic children. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 15(1), 85-90 (1999).
47. Lee JJ, Fang PC, Yang IH et al. Prevention of myopia progression with 0.05% atropine solution. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 22(1), 41-46 (2006).
48. Chua W-H, Tan D, Balakrishnan V, Chan Y-H, ATOM Study Group. Progression of childhood myopia following cessation of atropine treatment. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(Suppl.), (2005) (E-Abstract 4625).
49. Brodstein RS, Brodstein DE, Olson RJ, Hunt SC, Williams RR. The treatment of myopia with atropine and bifocals. A long-term prospective study. Ophthalmology 91(11), 1373-1379 (1984).
50. Chou AC, Shih YF, Ho TC, Lin LLK. The effectiveness of 0.5% atropine in controlling high myopia in children. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 13(1), 61-68 (1997).
51. Stone RA, Lin T, Laties AM. Muscarinic antagonist effects on experimental chick myopia. Exp. Eye Res. 52(6), 755-758 (1991).
52. Tan DT, Lam DS, Chua WH, Shu-Ping DF, Crockett RS. One-year multicenter, double-masked, placebo-controlled, parallel safety and efficacy study of 2% pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in children with myopia. Ophthalmology 112(1), 84-91 (2005).
53. Siatkowski RM, Cotter S, Miller JM, Scher CA, Crockett RS, Novack GD. Safety and efficacy of 2% pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in children with myopia: a 1-year, multicenter, double-masked, placebo-controlled parallel study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 122(11), 1667-1674 (2004).
54. Gostin SB. Prophylatic management of progressive myopia. South Med. J. 55, 916-920 (1962).
55. Abraham S. Control of myopia with tropicamide. A progess report. J. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. 3, 10-22 (1966).
56. Bartlett JD, Jaanus SD. Clinical Ocular Pharmacology. Butterworth-Heinemann/ Elsevier, MO, USA (2008).
57. Bengtsson B. Some factors affecting the distribution of intraocular pressures in a population. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 50(1), 33-46 (1972).
58. Bonomi L, Mecca E, Massa F. Intraocular pressure in myopic anisometropia. Int. Ophthalmol. 5(3), 145-148 (1982).
59. David R, Zangwill LM, Tessler Z, Yassur Y. The correlation between intraocular pressure and refractive status. Arch. Ophthalmol. 103(12), 1812-1815 (1985).
60. Edwards MH, Brown B. IOP in myopic children: the relationship between increases in IOP and the development of myopia. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 16(3), 243-246 (1996).
61. Puell-Marin MC, Romero-Martin M, Dominguez-Carmona M. Intraocular pressure in 528 university students: effect of refractive error. J. Am. Optom. Assoc. 68(10), 657-662 (1997).
62. Quinn GE, Berlin JA, Young TL, Ziylan S, Stone RA. Association of intraocular pressure and myopia in children. Ophthalmology 102(2), 180-185 (1995).
63. Tomlinson A, Phillips CI. Unequal axial length of eyeball and ocular tension. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 50(6), 872-876 (1972).
64. Jensen H. Myopia progression in young school children. A prospective study of myopia progression and the effect of a trial with bifocal lenses and b blocker eye drops. Acta Ophthalmol. Suppl. 200, 1-79 (1991).
65. Vaughan D, Shaffer R, Riegelman S. A new stabilized form of epinephrine for the treatment of open-angle glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 66, 232-235 (1961).
66. Wiener M. The use of epinephrine in progessive myopia. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 14, 520-522 (1931).
67. Rose KA, Morgan IG, Ip J et al. Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children. Ophthalmology 115(8), 1279-1285 (2008).
68. Macdiarmid DC. The treatment of myopia. Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc. N. Z. 16, 66-72 (1964).
69. Trier K, Olsen EB, Kobayashi T, Ribel-Madsen SM. Biochemical and ultrastructural changes in rabbit sclera after treatment with 7-methylxanthine, theobromine, acetazolamide, or l-ornithine. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 83(12), 1370-1375 (1999).
70. Cui D, Trier K, Zeng J et al. Effects of 7-methylxanthine on the sclera in form deprivation myopia in guinea pigs. Acta Ophthalmol. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2009.01688.x (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
71. Young FA. The effect of atropine on the development of myopia in monkeys. Am. J. Optom. Arch. Am. Acad. Optom. 42, 439-449 (1965).
72. Wilson JR, Sherman SM. Differential effects of early monocular deprivation on binocular and monocular segments of cat striate cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 40(4), 891-903 (1977).
73. Wiesel TN, Raviola E. Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys. Nature 266(5597), 66-68 (1977).
74. Curtin BJ, Teng CC. Scleral changes in pathological myopia. Trans. Am. Acad. Ophthalmol. Otolaryngol. 62(6), 777-788; discussion 788-790 (1958).
75. Wallman J, Wildsoet CF, Xu A et al. Moving the retina: choroidal modulation of refractive state. Vision Res. 35(1), 37-50 (1995).
76. Troilo D, Nickla DL, Wildsoet CF. Choroidal thickness changes during altered eye growth and refractive state in a primate. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(6), 1249-1258 (2000).
77. Hung L-F, Wallman J, Smith E. Visiondependent changes in the choroidal thickness of Macaque monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(6), 1259-1269 (2000).
78. Raviola E, Wiesel TN. Effect of darkrearing on experimental myopia in monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 17(6), 485-488 (1978).
79. Sherman SM, Norton TT, Casagrande VA. Myopia in the lid-sutured tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Brain Res. 124(1), 154-157 (1977).
80. Mohan M, Rao VA, Dada VK. Experimental myopia in the rabbit. Exp. Eye Res. 25(1), 33-38 (1977).
81. Wallman J, Turkel J, Trachtman J. Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience. Science 201(4362), 1249-1251 (1978).
82. Hayes BP, Fitzke FW, Hodos W, Holden AL. A morphological analysis of experimental myopia in young chickens. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 27(6), 981-991 (1986).
83. Hodos W, Kuenzel WJ. Retinal-image degradation produces ocular enlargement in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 25(6), 652-659 (1984).
84. Yinon U, Koslowe KC, Lobel D, Landshman N, Barishak YR. Lid suture myopia in developing chicks: optical and structural considerations. Curr. Eye Res. 2(12), 877-882 (1982).
85. Gottlieb MD, Joshi HB, Nickla DL. Scleral changes in chicks with formdeprivation myopia. Curr. Eye Res. 9(12), 1157-1165 (1990).
86. Schaeffel F, Glasser A, Howland HC. Accommodation, refractive error and eye growth in chickens. Vision Res. 28(5), 639-657 (1988).
87. Hung LF, Crawford ML, Smith EL. Spectacle lenses alter eye growth and the refractive status of young monkeys. Nat. Med. 1(8), 761-765 (1995).
88. Whatham AR, Judge SJ. Compensatory changes in eye growth and refraction induced by daily wear of soft contact lenses in young marmosets. Vision Res. 41(3), 267-273 (2001).
89. Siegwart JT, Norton TT. Refractive and ocular changes in tree shrews raised with plus or minus lenses. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 34(4), 1208 (1993).
90. Howlett MHC, McFadden SA. Spectacle lens compensation in the pigmented guinea pig. Vision Res. 49(2), 219-227 (2009).
91. McFadden S, Wallman J. Guinea pig eye growth compensates for spectacle lenses. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 36(Suppl.), 758 (1995).
92. Beuerman RW, Barathi VA, Weon SR, Tan D. Two models of experimental myopia in the mouse. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(Suppl.), 4338 (2003).
93. Wallman J, Winawer J. Homeostasis of eye growth and the question of myopia. Neuron 43(4), 447-468 (2004).
94. Raviola E, Wiesel TN. An animal model of myopia. N. Engl. J. Med. 312(25), 1609-1615 (1985).
95. Wildsoet CF, Pettigrew JD. Experimental myopia and anomalous eye growth patterns unaffected by optic nerve section in chickens: evidence for local control of eye growth. Clin. Vision Sci. 3(2), 99-107 (1988).
96. Troilo D, Gottlieb MD, Wallman J. Visual deprivation causes myopia in chicks with optic nerve section. Curr. Eye Res. 6(8), 993-999 (1987).
97. Wildsoet C. Neural pathways subserving negative lens-induced emmetropization in chicks - insights from selective lesions of the optic nerve and ciliary nerve. Curr. Eye Res. 27(6), 371-385 (2003).
98. Wildsoet CF, McFadden SA. Optic nerve section does not prevent form deprivation-induced myopia or recovery from it in the mammalian eye. Presented at: Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology, Annual Meeting. FL, USA, 2-6 May 2010.
99. Norton TT, Essinger JA, McBrien NA. Lid-suture myopia in tree shrews with retinal ganglion cell blockade. Vis. Neurosci. 11(1), 143-153 (1994).
100. Wildsoet C, Wallman J. Choroidal and scleral mechanisms of compensation for spectacle lenses in chicks. Vision Res. 35(9), 1175-1194 (1995).
101. Gottlieb MD, Fugate-Wentzek LA, Wallman J. Different visual deprivations produce different ametropias and different eye shapes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28(8), 1225-1235 (1987).
102. Smith EL 3rd, Huang J, Hung LF, Blasdel TL, Humbird TL, Bockhorst KH. Hemiretinal form deprivation: evidence for local control of eye growth and refractive development in infant monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(11), 5057-5069 (2009).
103. McFadden S. Partial occlusion produces local form deprivation myopia in the guinea pig eye. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(4), 189 (2002).
104. Zeng G, McFadden S. Regional variation in susceptibility to myopia from partial form deprivation in the guinea pig. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51 (2010) (E-Abstract 10-A-4887-ARVO).
105. Schaeffel F, Troilo D, Wallman J, Howland HC. Developing eyes that lack accommodation grow to compensate for imposed defocus. Vis. Neurosci. 4(2), 177-183 (1990).
106. Wildsoet CF, Howland HC, Falconer S, Dick K. Chromatic aberration and accommodation: their role in emmetropization in the chick. Vision Res. 33(12), 1593-1603 (1993).
107. Schwahn HN, Schaeffel F. Chick eyes under cycloplegia compensate for spectacle lenses despite six-hydroxy dopamine treatment. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 35(9), 3516-3524 (1994).
108. McBrien NA, Moghaddam HO, New R, Williams LR. Experimental myopia in a diurnal mammal (Sciurus carolinensis) with no accommodative ability. J. Physiol. 469, 427-441 (1993).
109. Pilar G, Nunez R, McLennan IS, Meriney SD. Muscarinic and nicotinic synaptic activation of the developing chicken iris. J. Neurosci. 7(12), 3813-3826 (1987).
110. McBrien NA, Moghaddam HO, Reeder AP. Atropine reduces experimental myopia and eye enlargement via a nonaccommodative mechanism. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 34(1), 205-215 (1993).
111. Honkanen RE, Abdel-Latif AA. Characterization of cholinergic muscarinic receptors in the rabbit iris. Biochem. Pharmacol. 37(13), 2575-2583 (1988).
112. Honkanen RE, Howard EF, Abdel-Latif AA. M3-muscarinic receptor subtype predominates in the bovine iris sphincter smooth muscle and ciliary processes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31(3), 590-593 (1990).
113. Konno F, Takayanagi I. Comparison of the muscarinic cholinoceptors in the rabbit ciliary body and the guinea-pig ileum. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 132(2-3), 171-178 (1986).
114. Cha YL, Weon SR, Beuerman RW. Effect of muscarinic agents and the role of sclera fibroblasts in experimental myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(Suppl.), 2411 (2002).
115. Morgan I, van Rijswijk P, Megaw P. M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors mediate muscarinic block of axial elongation in the chicken. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(Suppl.), (2005) (E-Abstract 3342).
116. Cottriall CL, McBrien NA. The M1 muscarinic antagonist pirenzepine reduces myopia and eye enlargement in the tree shrew. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37(7), 1368-1379 (1996).
117. McBrien NA, Cottriall CL. Pirenzepine reduces axial elongation and myopia in monocularly derived tree shrews. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 34(Suppl.), 2493 (1993).
118. Truong HT, Cottriall CL, Gentle A, McBrien NA. Pirenzepine affects scleral metabolic changes in myopia through a non-toxic mechanism. Exp. Eye Res. 74(1), 103-111 (2002).
119. Tigges M, Iuvone PM, Fernandes A et al. Effects of muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists on postnatal eye growth of rhesus monkeys. Optom. Vis. Sci. 76(6), 397-407 (1999).
120. Luft WA, Ming Y, Stell WK. Variable effects of previously untested muscarinic receptor antagonists on experimental myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(3), 1330-1338 (2003).
121. Diether S, Schaeffel F, Fritsch C, Trendelenburg AU, Payor R, Lambrou GN. Role of M1 and M4 receptors in development of myopia: study with muscarinic receptor antagonists and muscarinic toxins. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(Suppl.), (2005) (E-Abstract 1986).
122. North RA, Slack BE, Surprenant A. Muscarinic M1 and M2 receptors mediate depolarization and presynaptic inhibition in guinea-pig enteric nervous system. J. Physiol. 368, 435-452 (1985).
123. Yin GC, Gentle A, McBrien NA. Muscarinic antagonist control of myopia: a molecular search for the M1 receptor in chick. Mol. Vis. 10(93), 787-793 (2004).
124. McBrien NA, Jobling AI, Truong HT, Cottriall CL, Gentle A. Expression of muscarinic receptor subtypes in tree shrew ocular tissues and their regulation during the development of myopia. Mol. Vis. 15, 464-475 (2009).
125. Liu Q, Wu J, Wang X, Zeng J. Changes in muscarinic acetylcholine receptor expression in form deprivation myopia in guinea pigs. Mol. Vis. 13, 1234.1244 (2007).
126. Rickers M, Schaeffel F. Dose-dependent effects of intravitreal pirenzepine on deprivation myopia and lens-induced refractive errors in chickens. Exp. Eye Res. 61(4), 509.516 (1995).
127. Leech EM, Cottriall CL, McBrien NA. Pirenzepine prevents form deprivation myopia in a dose dependent manner. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 15(5), 351-356 (1995).
128. Cottriall CL, McBrien NA, Annies R, Leech EM. Prevention of form-deprivation myopia with pirenzepine: a study of drug delivery and distribution. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 19(4), 327.335 (1999).
129. Rymer J, Wildsoet CF. The role of the retinal pigment epithelium in eye growth regulation and myopia: a review. Vis. Neurosci. 22(3), 251.261 (2005).
130. Zhang Y, Maminishkis A, Zhi C et al. Apomorphine regulates TGF.b1 and TGF.b2 expression in human fetal retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(Suppl.), 3845 (2009).
131. Tan J, Deng ZH, Liu SZ, Wang JT, Huang C. TGF.b2 in human retinal pigment epithelial cells: expression and secretion regulated by cholinergic signals in vitro. Curr. Eye Res. 35(1), 37.44 (2010).
132. Barathi VA, Weon SR, Beuerman RW. Expression of muscarinic receptors in human and mouse sclera and their role in the regulation of scleral fibroblasts proliferation. Mol. Vis. 15, 1277.1293 (2009).
133. Honda S, Fujii S, Sekiya Y, Yamamoto M. Retinal control on the axial length mediated by transforming growth factor-b in chick eye. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37(12), 2519.2526 (1996).
134. Jobling AI, Gentle A, Metlapally R, McGowan BJ, McBrien NA. Regulation of scleral cell contraction by transforming growth factor-b and stress: competing roles in myopic eye growth. J. Biol. Chem. 284(4), 2072.2079 (2009).
135. Jobling AI, Nguyen M, Gentle A, McBrien NA. Isoform-specific changes in scleral transforming growth factor-b expression and the regulation of collagen synthesis during myopia progression. J. Biol. Chem. 279(18), 18121.18126 (2004).
136. Seko Y, Shimokawa H, Tokoro T. Expression of bFGF and TGF.b 2 in experimental myopia in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 36(6), 1183.1187 (1995).
137. Seko Y, Shimokawa H, Tokoro T. In vivo and in vitro association of retinoic acid with form-deprivation myopia in the chick. Exp. Eye Res. 63(4), 443.452 (1996).
138. Seko Y, Tanaka Y, Tokoro T. Influence of bFGF as a potent growth stimulator and TGF.b as a growth regulator on scleral chondrocytes and scleral fibroblasts in vitro. Ophthalmic Res. 27(3), 144.152 (1995).
139. Lind GJ, Chew SJ, Marzani D, Wallman J. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists inhibit chick scleral chondrocytes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39(12), 2217.2231 (1998).
140. Rada JA, Shelton S, Norton TT. The sclera and myopia. Exp. Eye Res. 82(2), 185.200 (2006).
141. McBrien NA, Gentle A. Role of the sclera in the development and pathological complications of myopia. Prog. Ret. Eye Res. 22(3), 307.338 (2003).
142. Marzani D, Wallman J. Growth of the two layers of the chick sclera is modulated reciprocally by visual conditions. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38(9), 1726.1739 (1997).
143. Stone RA, Sugimoto R, Gill AS, Liu J, Capehart C, Lindstrom JM. Effects of nicotinic antagonists on ocular growth and experimental myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42(3), 557.565 2001).
144. Saw SM, Chia KS, Lindstrom JM, Tan DT, Stone RA. Childhood myopia and parental smoking. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 88(7), 934.937 (2004).
145. Stone RA, Wilson LB, Ying GS et al. Associations between childhood refraction and parental smoking. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(10), 4277.4287 (2006).
146. Geller AM, Abdel-Rahman AA, Peiffer RL, Abou-Donia MB, Boyes WK. The organophosphate pesticide chlorpyrifos affects form deprivation myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39(7), 1290.1294 (1998).
147. Cottriall CL, Brew J, Vessey KA, McBrien NA. Diisopropylfluorophosphate alters retinal neurotransmitter levels and reduces experimentally-induced myopia. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 364(4), 372.382 (2001).
148. Ishikawa S, Miyata M. Development of myopia following chronic organophosphate pesticide intoxication: an epidemiological and experimental study. In: Neurotoxicity of the Visual System. Merrigan WH, Weiss B (Eds). Raven Press, NY, USA, 233-254 (1980).
149. Dementi B. Ocular effects of organophosphates: a historical perspective of Saku disease. J. Appl. Toxicol. 14(2), 119-129 (1994).
150. Iuvone PM, Tigges M, Fernandes A, Tigges J. Dopamine synthesis and metabolism in rhesus monkey retina: development, aging, and the effects of monocular visual deprivation. Vis. Neurosci. 2(5), 465-471 (1989).
151. Stone RA, Lin T, Laties AM, Iuvone PM. Retinal dopamine and form-deprivation myopia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86(2), 704-706 (1989).
152. Ohngemach S, Hagel G, Schaeffel F. Concentrations of biogenic amines in fundal layers in chickens with normal visual experience, deprivation, and after reserpine application. Vis. Neurosci. 14, 493-505 (1997).
153. Rohrer B, Spira AW, Stell WK. Apomorphine blocks form-deprivation myopia in chickens by a dopamine D2- receptor mechanism acting in retina or pigmented epithelium. Vis. Neurosci. 10(3), 447-453 (1993).
154. Schmid KL, Wildsoet CF. Inhibitory effects of apomorphine and atropine and their combination on myopia in chicks. Optom. Vis. Sci. 81(2), 137-147 (2004).
155. Stone RA, Laties AM, Raviola E, Wiesel TN. Increase in retinal vasoactive intestinal polypeptide after eyelid fusion in primates. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 85(1), 257-260 (1988).
156. Ashby R, McCarthy CS, Maleszka R, Megaw P, Morgan IG. A muscarinic cholinergic antagonist and a dopamine agonist rapidly increase ZENK mRNA expression in the form-deprived chicken retina. Exp. Eye Res. 85(1), 15-22 (2007).
157. Gao Q, Liu Q, Ma P, Zhong X, Wu J, Ge J. Effects of direct intravitreal dopamine injections on the development of lid-suture induced myopia in rabbits. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 244(10), 1329-1335 (2006).
158. Iuvone PM, Tigges M, Stone RA, Lambert S, Laties AM. Effects of apomorphine, a dopamine receptor agonist, on ocular refraction and axial elongation in a primate model of myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 32(5), 1674-1677 (1991).
159. Troilo D, Nickla DL, Mertz JR, Summers Rada JA. Change in the synthesis rates of ocular retinoic acid and scleral glycosaminoglycan during experimentally altered eye growth in marmosets. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 47(5), 1768-1777 (2006).
160. Qiao-Grider Y, Hung LF, Kee CS, Ramamirtham R, Smith EL 3rd. Recovery from form-deprivation myopia in rhesus monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(10), 3361-3372 (2004).
161. Wildsoet CF, Clark IQ. Interacting effects of kainic acid and 6-hydroxydopamine on eye growth and refraction in the chick. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (Suppl.), 2491 (1993).
162. Li XX, Schaeffel F, Kohler K, Zrenner E. Dose-dependent effects of 6-hydroxy dopamine on deprivation myopia, electroretinograms, and dopaminergic amacrine cells in chickens. Vis. Neurosci. 9(5), 483-492 (1992).
163. Schaeffel F, Hagel G, Bartmann M, Kohler K, Zrenner E. 6-hydroxy dopamine does not affect lens-induced refractive errors but suppresses deprivation myopia. Vision Res. 34, 143-149 (1993).
164. Ashby RS, Schaeffel F. The effect of bright light on lens-compensation in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51(10), 5247-5253 (2010).
165. Fischer AJ, Stanke JJ, Aloisio G, Hoy H, Stell WK. Heterogeneity of horizontal cells in the chicken retina. J. Comp. Neurol. 500(6), 1154-1171 (2007).
166. Araki CM, Hamassaki-Britto DE. Motion-sensitive neurons in the chick retina: a study using Fos immunohistochemistry. Brain Res. 794(2), 333-337 (1998).
167. Zhou ZJ, Lee S. Synaptic physiology of direction selectivity in the retina. J. Physiol. 586(Pt 18), 4371-4376 (2008).
168. Stone RA, Liu J, Sugimoto R, Capehart C, Zhu X, Pendrak K. GABA, experimental myopia, and ocular growth in chick. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(9), 3933-3946 (2003).
169. Chebib M, Gavande N, Wong KY et al. Guanidino acids act as rho1 GABA(C) receptor antagonists. Neurochem. Res. 34(10), 1704-1711 (2009).
170. Song XQ, Meng F, Ramsey DJ, Ripps H, Qian H. The GABA rho1 subunit interacts with a cellular retinoic acid binding protein in mammalian retina. Neuroscience 136(2), 467-475 (2005).
171. Stone RA, Kuwayama Y, Laties AM. Regulatory peptides in the eye. Experientia 43(7), 791-800 (1987).
172. Seltner RL, Stell WK. The effect of vasoactive intestinal peptide on development of form deprivation myopia in the chick: a pharmacological and immunocytochemical study. Vision Res. 35(9), 1265-1270 (1995).
173. Fischer AJ, Seltner RL, Poon J, Stell WK. Immunocytochemical characterization of quisqualic acid- and N-methyl-d-aspartate induced excitotoxicity in the retina of chicks. J. Comp. Neurol. 393(1), 1-15 (1998).
174. Ehrlich D, Sattayasai J, Zappia J, Barrington M. Effects of selective neurotoxins on eye growth in the young chick. Ciba Found. Symp. 155, 63-84; discussion 84-88 (1990).
175. Fischer AJ, Morgan IG, Stell WK. Colchicine causes excessive ocular growth and myopia in chicks. Vision Res. 39(4), 685-697 (1999).
176. Stubinger K, Brehmer A, Neuhuber WL, Reitsamer H, Nickla D, Schrodl F. Intrinsic choroidal neurons in the chicken eye: chemical coding and synaptic input. Histochem. Cell Biol. 134(2), 145-157 (2010).
177. Seltner RL, Rohrer B, Grant V, Stell WK. Endogenous opiates in the chick retina and their role in form-deprivation myopia. Vis. Neurosci. 14(5), 801-809 (1997).
178. Thode C, Bock J, Braun K, Darlison MG. The chicken immediate-early gene ZENK is expressed in the medio-rostral neostriatum/hyperstriatum ventrale, a brain region involved in acoustic imprinting, and is up-regulated after exposure to an auditory stimulus. Neuroscience 130(3), 611-617 (2005).
179. Bitzer M, Schaeffel F. Defocus-induced changes in ZENK expression in the chicken retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(1), 246-252 (2002).
180. Fischer AJ, McGuire JJ, Schaeffel F, Stell WK. Light- and focus-dependent expression of the transcription factor ZENK in the chick retina. Nat. Neurosci. 2(8), 706-712 (1999).
181. Feldkaemper MP, Wang HY, Schaeffel F. Changes in retinal and choroidal gene expression during development of refractive errors in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(7), 1623-1628 (2000).
182. Zhu X, Wallman J. Opposite effects of glucagon and insulin on compensation for spectacle lenses in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(1), 24-36 (2009).
183. Vessey KA, Lencses KA, Rushforth DA, Hruby VJ, Stell WK. Glucagon receptor agonists and antagonists affect the growth of the chick eye: a role for glucagonergic regulation of emmetropization? Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46(11), 3922-3931 (2005).
184. Feldkaemper MP, Schaeffel F. Evidence for a potential role of glucagon during eye growth regulation in chicks. Vis. Neurosci. 19(6), 755-766 (2002).
185. Buck C, Schaeffel F, Simon P, Feldkaemper M. Effects of positive and negative lens treatment on retinal and choroidal glucagon and glucagon receptor mRNA levels in the chicken. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45(2), 402-409 (2004).
186. Choh V, Padmanabhan V, Li WS et al. Colchicine attenuates compensation to negative but not to positive lenses in young chicks. Exp. Eye Res. 86(2), 260-27 (2008).
187. Fischer AJ, Ritchey ER, Scott MA, Wynne A. Bullwhip neurons in the retina regulate the size and shape of the eye. Dev. Biol. 317(1), 196-212 (2008).
188. Feldkaemper MP, Neacsu I, Schaeffel F. Insulin acts as a powerful stimulator of axial myopia in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(1), 13-23 (2009).
189. Fujikado T, Kawasaki Y, Fujii J et al. The effect of nitric oxide
190. Fujikado T, Tsujikawa K, Tamura M, Hosohata J, Kawasaki Y, Tano Y. Effect of a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor on lens-induced myopia. Ophthalmic Res. 33(2), 75-79 (2001).
191. Nickla DL, Damyanova P, Lytle G. Inhibiting the neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase has similar effects on the compensatory choroidal and axial responses to myopic defocus in chicks as does the non-specific inhibitor. Exp. Eye Res. 88(6), 1092-1099 (2009).
192. Nickla DL, Wildsoet CF. The effect of the nonspecific nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester on the choroidal compensatory response to myopic defocus in chickens. Optom. Vis. Sci. 81(2), 111-118 (2004).
193. Koistinaho J, Swanson RA, de Vente J, Sagar SM. NADPH-diaphorase (nitric oxide synthase)-reactive amacrine cells of rabbit retina: putative target cells and stimulation by light. Neuroscience 57(3), 587-597 (1993).
194. Poukens V, Glasgow BJ, Demer JL. Nonvascular contractile cells in sclera and choroid of humans and monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39(10), 1765-1774 (1998).
195. Schrodl F, De Laet A, Tassignon MJ et al. Intrinsic choroidal neurons in the human eye: projections, targets, and basic electrophysiological data. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44(9), 3705-3712 (2003).
196. Niederreither K, Dolle P. Retinoic acid in development: towards an integrated view. Nat. Rev. Genet. 9(7), 541-553 (2008).
197. Mark M, Ghyselinck NB, Chambon P. Function of retinoic acid receptors during embryonic development. Nucl. Recept. Signal. 7, e002 (2009).
198. Luo T, Sakai Y, Wagner E, Drager UC. Retinoids, eye development, and maturation of visual function. J. Neurobiol. 66(7), 677-686 (2006).
199. Mori M, Ghyselinck NB, Chambon P, Mark M. Systematic immunolocalization of retinoid receptors in developing and adult mouse eyes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42(6), 1312-1318 (2001).
200. Mertz JR, Wallman J. Choroidal retinoic acid synthesis: a possible mediator between refractive error and compensatory eye growth. Exp. Eye Res. 70(4), 519-527 (2000).
201. McFadden SA, Howlett MH, Mertz JR, Wallman J. Acute effects of dietary retinoic acid on ocular components in the growing chick. Exp. Eye Res. 83(4), 949.961 (2006).
202. Bitzer M, Feldkaemper M, Schaeffel F. Visually induced changes in components of the retinoic acid system in fundal layers of the chick. Exp. Eye Res. 70(1), 97.106 (2000).
203. McFadden SA, Howlett MH, Mertz JR. Retinoic acid signals the direction of ocular elongation in the guinea pig eye. Vision Res. 44(7), 643.653 (2004).
204. Pohlers D, Brenmoehl J, Loffler I et al. TGF.b and fibrosis in different organs . molecular pathway imprints. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1792(8), 746.756 (2009).
205. Kjaer M, Langberg H, Heinemeier K et al. From mechanical loading to collagen synthesis, structural changes and function in human tendon. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 19(4), 500.510 (2009).
206. Lincoln J, Lange AW, Yutzey KE. Hearts and bones: shared regulatory mechanisms in heart valve, cartilage, tendon, and bone development. Dev. Biol. 294(2), 292.302 (2006).
207. Katoh M. FGFR2 abnormalities underlie a spectrum of bone, skin, and cancer pathologies. J. Invest. Dermatol. 129(8), 1861.1867 (2009).
208. Rohrer B, Stell WK. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and transforming growth factor b (TGF.b) act as stop and go signals to modulate postnatal ocular growth in the chick. Exp. Eye Res. 58(5), 553.561 (1994).
209. Rohrer B, Tao J, Stell WK. Basic fibroblast growth factor, its high- and low-affinity receptors, and their relationship to form-deprivation myopia in the chick. Neuroscience 79(3), 775.787 (1997).
210. Rohrer B, Iuvone PM, Stell WK. Stimulation of dopaminergic amacrine cells by stroboscopic illumination or fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, FGF-2) injections: possible roles in prevention of formdeprivation myopia in the chick. Brain Res. 686(2), 169.181 (1995).
211. Gentle A, McBrien NA. Retinoscleral control of scleral remodelling in refractive development: a role for endogenous FGF-2? Cytokine 18(6), 344.348 (2002).
212. Jobling A, Gentle A, Metlapally R, McGowan B, McBrien N. Regulation of scleral cell contraction by transforming growth factor-b and stress: competing roles in myopic eye growth. J. Biol. Chem. 284(4), 2072.2079 (2009).
213. Zhang Y, Maminishkis A, Zhi C et al. Apomorphine regulates TGF.b1 and TGF.b2 expression in human fetal retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(Suppl.), 3845 (2009).
214. Schmid KL, Abbott M, Humphries M, Pyne K, Wildsoet CF. Timolol lowers intraocular pressure but does not inhibit the development of experimental myopia in chick. Exp. Eye Res. 70(5), 659.666 (2000).
215. Lueitjen-Drecoll E, Kaufman PL. Long-term timolol and epinephrine in monkeys 2. Functional morphology of the ciliary processes. Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc. 105, 180.195 (1985).
216. Rymer JM, Wildsoet CF, Miller SS. Epinephrine decreases cytosolic calcium in chick retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43(Suppl.), (2002) (E-Abstract 719).
217. Toris CB, Gabelt BT, Kaufman PL. Update on the mechanism of action of topical prostaglandins for intraocular pressure reduction. Surv. Ophthalmol. 53(Suppl. 1), S107.S120 (2008).
218. Alm A, Nilsson SF. Uveoscleral outflow . a review. Exp. Eye Res. 88(4), 760.768 (2009).
219. Jin N, Stjernschantz J. Effects of prostaglandins on form deprivation myopi in the chick. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 78(5), 495.500 (2000).
220. Kim JW, Lindsey JD, Wang N, Weinreb RN. Increased human scleral permeability with prostaglandin exposure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42(7), 1514.1521 (2001).
221. Seet B, Wong TY, Tan DT et al. Myopia in Singapore: taking a public health approach. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 85(5), 521.526 (2001).
222. Dirani M, Chan Y-H, Gazzard G et al. Prevalence of refractive error in Singaporean Chinese children: the Strabismus, Amblyopia, and Refractive Error in Young Singaporean Children (STARS) study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 51, 1348.1355 (2010).
223. Del Amo EM, Urtti A. Current and future ophthalmic drug delivery systems. A shift to the posterior segment. Drug Discov. Today 13(3.4), 135.143 (2008).
224. Kim SH, Lutz RJ, Wang NS, Robinson MR. Transport barriers in transscleral drug delivery for retinal diseases. Ophthalmic Res. 39(5), 244.254 (2007).
225. Sahoo SK, Dilnawaz F, Krishnakumar S. Nanotechnology in ocular drug delivery. Drug Discov. Today 13(3.4), 144.151 (2008).
226. Short BG. Safety evaluation of ocular drug delivery formulations: techniques and practical considerations. Toxicol. Pathol. 36(1), 49-62 (2008).
227. Gruber E. Treatment of myopia with atropine and bifocals. Ophthalmology 92(7), 985 (1985).
228. Yen MY, Liu JH, Kao SC, Shiao CH. Comparison of the effect of atropine and cyclopentolate on myopia. Ann. Ophthalmol. 21(5), 180-182 (1989).
229. Syniuta LA, Isenberg SJ. Atropine and bifocals can slow the progression of myopia in children. Binocul. Vis. Strabismus. Q. 16(3), 203-208 (2001).
230. Kennedy RH, Dyer JA, Kennedy MA et al. Reducing the progression of myopia with atropine: a long term cohort study of Olmsted County students. Binocul. Vis. Strabismus. Q. 15(3), 281-304 (2000).
231. Fang PC, Chung MY, Yu HJ, Wu PC. Prevention of myopia onset with 0.025% atropine in premyopic children. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 26(4), 341-345 (2010).
232. Diether S, Schaeffel F, Lambrou GN, Fritsch C, Trendelenburg AU. Effects of intravitreally and intraperitoneally injected atropine on two types of experimental myopia in chicken. Exp. Eye Res. 84(2), 266-274 (2007).
233. Liu S, Li J, Tan DT, Beuerman RW. Expression and function of muscarinic receptor subtypes on human cornea and conjunctiva. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48(7), 2987-2996 (2007).
234. Collison DJ, Coleman RA, James RS, Carey J, Duncan G. Characterization of muscarinic receptors in human lens cells by pharmacologic and molecular techniques. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41(9), 2633-2641 (2000).
235. Fischer AJ, McKinnon LA, Nathanson NM, Stell WK. Identification and localization of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the ocular tissues of the chick. J. Comp. Neurol. 392(3), 273-284 (1998).
236. Ishizaka N, Noda M, Yokoyama S, Kawasaki K, Yamamoto M, Higashida H. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes in the human iris. Brain Res. 787(2), 344-347 (1998).
237. Vessey KA, Cottriall CL, McBrien NA. Muscarinic receptor protein expression in the ocular tissues of the chick during normal and myopic eye development. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 135(1-2), 79-86 (2002).
238. Ali SF, Hong JS, Bondy SC. Alterations in retinal neurotransmitter receptors and neuropeptides of the chick by kainic acid and acrylamide. Brain Res. 274(1), 115-118 (1983).
239. Schliebs R, Bigl V, Biesold D. Development of muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding in the visual system of monocularly deprived and dark reared rats. Neurochem. Res. 7(9), 1181-1198 (1982).
240. Qu J, Zhou X, Xie R et al. The presence of m1 to m5 receptors in human sclera: evidence of the sclera as a potential site of action for muscarinic receptor antagonists. Curr. Eye Res. 31(7-8), 587-597 (2006).
241. Arumugam B, McBrien N. The D2 antagonist spiperone prevents muscarinic antagonist control of experimentallyinduced myopia in chick. Presnted at: Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Annual Meeting. FL, USA, 2-6 May 2010.
242. Schaeffel F, Bartmann M, Hagel G, Zrenner E. Studies on the role of the retinal dopamine/melatonin system in experimental refractive errors in chickens. Vision Res. 35(9), 1247-1264 (1995).
243. Diether S, Schaeffel F. Long-term changes in retinal contrast sensitivity in chicks from frosted occluders and drugs: relations to myopia? Vision Res. 39(15), 2499-2510 (1999).
244. Xie F, Chen YG. [Influence of disulfiram on the expression of transforming growth factor-b2 in form-deprived eyes in chicks]. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao 40(6), 610-615 (2008).
245. Mao J, Liu S, Wen D, Tan X, Fu C. Basic fibroblast growth factor suppresses retinal neuronal apoptosis in form-deprivation myopia in chicks. Curr. Eye Res. 31(11), 983-987 (2006).
246. Rada JA, Johnson JM, Achen VR, Rada KG. Inhibition of scleral proteoglycan synthesis blocks deprivation-induced axial elongation in chicks. Exp. Eye Res. 74(2), 205-215 (2002).