Systemic Sclerosis: Bilateral Improvement of Raynaud's Phenomenon with Unilateral Digital Sympathectomy

Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 137-146

  Wasserman, Amy ^a   Brahn, Ernest ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

CREST; Digital ulcers; Raynaud's phenomenon; Sympathectomy; Systemic sclerosis

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTINUCLEAR ANTIBODY; NIFEDIPINE;

ADULT; ALTITUDE DISEASE; ARTICLE; BRAIN EDEMA; CAPILLAROSCOPY; CASE REPORT; COLD EXPOSURE; CYCLING; FINGER ULCER; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; ISCHEMIA; MALE; MOUNTAINEERING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAYNAUD PHENOMENON; SYMPATHECTOMY; SYNDROME CREST; SYSTEMIC SCLEROSIS; ULCER; WOUND DRESSING;

ADULT; ALTITUDE; FINGERS; HUMANS; MALE; MEDLINE; MOUNTAINEERING; RAYNAUD DISEASE; REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW; SCLERODERMA, SYSTEMIC; SKIN ULCER; SYMPATHECTOMY; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 77957018108     PISSN: 00490172     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2009.08.002     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Ferri C., Valentini G., Cozzi F., Sebastiani M., Michelassi C., La M.G., et al. Systemic sclerosis: demographic, clinical, and serologic features and survival in 1,012 Italian patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2002, 81(2):139-153.
2. Merkel P.A., Herlyn K., Martin R.W., Anderson J.J., Mayes M.D., Bell P., et al. Measuring disease activity and functional status in patients with scleroderma and Raynaud's phenomenon. Arthritis Rheum 2002, 46(9):2410-2420.
3. Chung L., Fiorentino D. Digital ulcers in patients with systemic sclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 2006, 5(2):125-128.
4. Chung L. Therapeutic options for digital ulcers in patients with systemic sclerosis. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2007, 5(6):460-465.
5. Wigley F.M. Clinical practice. Raynaud's Phenomenon. N Engl J Med 2002, 347(13):1001-1008.
6. Flavahan N.A. Regulation of vascular reactivity in scleroderma: new insights into Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2008, 34(1):81-87.
7. Pope JE. Raynaud's phenomenon (primary). Clin Evid (Online) [2008 :[1119] Available from: URL:PM:19445785. http://clinicalevidence.bmj.com/ceweb/index.jsp.
8. Zandman-Goddard G., Tweezer-Zaks N., Shoenfeld Y. New therapeutic strategies for systemic sclerosis-a critical analysis of the literature. Clin Dev Immunol 2005, 12(3):165-173.
9. Kopelman D., Hashmonai M. The correlation between the method of sympathetic ablation for palmar hyperhidrosis and the occurrence of compensatory hyperhidrosis: a review. World J Surg 2008, 32(11):2343-2356.
10. Thune T.H., Ladegaard L., Licht P.B. Thoracoscopic sympathectomy for Raynaud's phenomenon-a long term follow-up study. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2006, 32(2):198-202.
11. Flatt A.E. Digital artery sympathectomy. J Hand Surg [Am] 1980, 5(6):550-556.
12. Medsger T.A., Silman A.J., Steen V.D., Black C.M., Akesson A., Bacon P.A., et al. A disease severity scale for systemic sclerosis: development and testing. J Rheumatol 1999, 26(10):2159-2167.
13. Medsger T.A., Bombardieri S., Czirjak L., Scorza R., Della R.A., Bencivelli W. Assessment of disease severity and prognosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2003, 21(3 Suppl 29):S42-S46.
14. Meyer O.C., Fertig N., Lucas M., Somogyi N., Medsger T.A. Disease subsets, antinuclear antibody profile, and clinical features in 127 French and 247 US adult patients with systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol 2007, 34(1):104-109.
15. Balbir-Gurman A., Braun-Moscovici Y., Nahir A.M. Cocaine-induced raynaud's phenomenon and ischaemic finger necrosis. Clin Rheumatol 2001, 20(5):376-378.
16. Leithauser B., Langheinrich A.C., Rau W.S., Tillmanns H., Matthias F.R. A 22-year-old woman with lower limb arteriopathy. Buerger's disease, or methamphetamine- or cannabis-induced arteritis?. Heart Vessels 2005, 20(1):39-43.
17. Zafren K. Gamow bag for high-altitude cerebral oedema. Lancet 1998, 352(9124):325-326.
18. Spiera R.F. Systemic sclerosis and related syndromes. Manual of rheumatology and outpatient orthopedic disorders 2000, 252-257. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York (NY). 4th ed. S.A. Paget, A. Gibofsky, J.F. Beary (Eds.).
19. Tomaino M.M., Goitz R.J., Medsger T.A. Surgery for ischemic pain and Raynaud's phenomenon in scleroderma: a description of treatment protocol and evaluation of results. Microsurgery 2001, 21(3):75-79.
20. Thompson A.E., Shea B., Welch V., Fenlon D., Pope J.E. Calcium-channel blockers for Raynaud's phenomenon in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 2001, 44(8):1841-1847.
21. Thompson A.E., Pope J.E. Calcium channel blockers for primary Raynaud's phenomenon: a meta-analysis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005, 44(2):145-150.
22. Takahara K., Kuroiwa A., Matsushima T., Nakashima Y., Takasugi M. Effects of nifedipine on platelet function. Am Heart J 1985, 109(1):4-8.
23. Winston E.L., Pariser K.M., Miller K.B., Salem D.N., Creager M.A. Nifedipine as a therapeutic modality for Raynaud's phenomenon. Arthritis Rheum 1983, 26(10):1177-1180.
24. Vinjar B., Stewart M. Oral vasodilators for primary Raynaud's phenomenon. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008, 2. CD006687.
25. Tucker A.T., Pearson R.M., Cooke E.D., Benjamin N. Effect of nitric-oxide-generating system on microcirculatory blood flow in skin of patients with severe Raynaud's syndrome: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999, 354(9191):1670-1675.
26. Wheeland R.G., Gilchrist R.W., Young C.J. Treatment of ischemic digital ulcers with nitroglycerin ointment. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1983, 9(7):548-551.
27. Belch J., Fiorentino D., Denton C., Herrick A., Sule S., Steen V., et al. MQX-503, a novel topical nitroglycerine formulation, improves severity of symptoms associated with Raynaud's phenomenon. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 58(Suppl):S622.
28. Chung L., Shapiro L., Fiorentino D., Baron M., Shanahan J., Sule S., et al. MQX-503, a novel formulation of nitroglycerin, improves the severity of Raynaud's phenomenon: a randomized, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 2009, 60(3):870-877.
29. Jaffe IA. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors in Raynaud's phenomenon. Lancet 1378;345(8961):1378.
30. Coleiro B., Marshall S.E., Denton C.P., Howell K., Blann A., Welsh K.I., et al. Treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001, 40(9):1038-1043.
31. Warren J.B., Loi R.K. Captopril increases skin microvascular blood flow secondary to bradykinin, nitric oxide, and prostaglandins. FASEB J 1995, 9(5):411-418.
32. Wood H.M., Ernst M.E. Renin-angiotensin system mediators and Raynaud's phenomenon. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40(11):1998-2002.
33. Dziadzio M., Denton C.P., Smith R., Howell K., Blann A., Bowers E., et al. Losartan therapy for Raynaud's phenomenon and scleroderma: clinical and biochemical findings in a fifteen-week, randomized, parallel-group, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1999, 42(12):2646-2655.
34. Gliddon A.E., Dore C.J., Black C.M., McHugh N., Moots R., Denton C.P., et al. Prevention of vascular damage in scleroderma and autoimmune Raynaud's phenomenon: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor quinapril. Arthritis Rheum 2007, 56(11):3837-3846.
35. Heymann W.R. Sildenafil for the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006, 55(3):501-502.
36. Gore J, Silver R. Oral sildenafil for the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon and digital ulcers secondary to systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 1387;64(9):1387.
37. Della Rossa A, Doveri A, Tavoni A, Consensi A, Neri R, Bazzichi L, et al. Oral sildenafil in skin ulcers secondary to systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis [2009 :[THU0291]. http://www.abstracts2view.com/eular/.
38. Becker M, Bruckner CS, Scherer H, Burmester GR, Riemekasten G. Effect of Sildenafil on digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis-analysis from a single centre study. Ann Rheum Dis [2009 :[OP0080]. http://www.abstracts2view.com/eular/.
39. Fries R., Shariat K., von W.H., Bohm M. Sildenafil in the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon resistant to vasodilatory therapy. Circulation 2005, 112(19):2980-2985.
40. Shenoy P., Agarwal V., Chaudhary S.K., Jha L.K., Singh U., Misra R., et al. Efficacy of tadalafil in secondary raynaud's phenomenon resistant to vasodilator therapy: a double blind randomized cross over trial. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 58(Suppl):S402.
41. Neirotti M., Longo F., Molaschi M., Macchione C., Pernigotti L. Functional vascular disorders: treatment with pentoxifylline. Angiology 1987, 38(8):575-580.
42. Hettema M.E., Zhang D., Bootsma H., Kallenberg C.G. Bosentan therapy for patients with severe Raynaud's phenomenon in systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66(10):1398-1399.
43. Hafner F, Gary T, Froehlicch H, Pilger E, Brodmann M. The effect of a single line therapy with bosentan versus a sequential therapy of prostanoids and bosentan in the treatment of digital skin ulcers in severe scleroderma. Ann Rheum Dis [2009 :[AB0382]. http://www.abstracts2view.com/eular/.
44. Korn J.H., Mayes M., Matucci C.M., Rainisio M., Pope J., Hachulla E., et al. Digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis: prevention by treatment with bosentan, an oral endothelin receptor antagonist. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50(12):3985-3993.
45. Pakozdi A, Howell K, Wilson H, Fox S, Gonzalez L, Black CM, et al. Inhaled iloprost for the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon. Clin Exp Rheumatol 709;26(4):709.
46. Kawald A., Burmester G.R., Huscher D., Sunderkotter C., Riemekasten G. Low versus high-dose iloprost therapy over 21 days in patients with secondary Raynaud's phenomenon and systemic sclerosis: a randomized, open, single-center study. J Rheumatol 2008, 35(9):1830-1837.
47. Pope J., Fenlon D., Thompson A., Shea B., Furst D., Wells G., et al. Iloprost and cisaprost for Raynaud's phenomenon in progressive systemic sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000, 2. CD000953.
48. Badesch D.B., Tapson V.F., McGoon M.D., Brundage B.H., Rubin L.J., Wigley F.M., et al. Continuous intravenous epoprostenol for pulmonary hypertension due to the scleroderma spectrum of disease. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2000, 132(6):425-434.
49. Engel G., Rockson S.G. Treprostinil for the treatment of severe digital necrosis in systemic sclerosis. Vasc Med 2005, 10(1):29-32.
50. Abou-Raya A., Abou-Raya S., Helmii M. Statins: potentially useful in therapy of systemic sclerosis-related Raynaud's phenomenon and digital ulcers. J Rheumatol 2008, 35(9):1801-1808.
51. Ozgocmen S., Kaya A., Coskun B.K. Topical lidocaine helps reduce pain of digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Clin Rheumatol 2006, 25(3):378-379.
52. Muir A.H., Robb R., McLaren M., Daly F., Belch J.J. The use of Ginkgo biloba in Raynaud's disease: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Vasc Med 2002, 7(4):265-267.
53. Malenfant D., Catton M., Pope J.E. The efficacy of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon: a literature review and meta-analysis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009, 48(7):791-795.
54. Jones N.F. Surgical approach to hand involvement. Systemic sclerosis 1996, 569-577. Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia (PA). 1st ed. P.J. Clements, D.E. Furst (Eds.).
55. Engelhart M. The effect of sympathetic blockade and cooling in Raynaud's phenomenon. Clin Physiol 1990, 10(2):131-136.
56. Klyscz T., Junger M., Meyer H., Rassner G. Improvement of acral circulation in a patient with systemic sclerosis with stellate blocks. Vasa 1998, 27(1):39-42.
57. Van Beek A.L., Lim P.K., Gear A.J., Pritzker M.R. Management of vasospastic disorders with botulinum toxin A. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007, 119(1):217-226.
58. Kossintseva I., Barankin B. Improvement in both Raynaud disease and hyperhidrosis in response to botulinum toxin type A treatment. J Cutan Med Surg 2008, 12(4):189-193.
59. Chwajol M., Barrenechea I.J., Chakraborty S., Lesser J.B., Connery C.P., Perin N.I. Impact of compensatory hyperhidrosis on patient satisfaction after endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy. Neurosurgery 2009, 64(3):511-518.
60. Walles T., Somuncuoglu G., Steger V., Veit S., Friedel G. Long-term efficiency of endoscopic thoracic sympathicotomy: survey 10 years after surgery. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2009, 8(1):54-57.
61. De Trafford J.C., Lafferty K., Potter C.E., Roberts V.C., Cotton L.T. An epidemiological survey of Raynaud's phenomenon. Eur J Vasc Surg 1988, 2(3):167-170.
62. Matsumoto Y., Ueyama T., Endo M., Sasaki H., Kasashima F., Abe Y., et al. Endoscopic thoracic sympathicotomy for Raynaud's phenomenon. J Vasc Surg 2002, 36(1):57-61.
63. Maga P., Kuzdzal J., Nizankowski R., Szczeklik A., Sladek K. Long-term effects of thoracic sympathectomy on microcirculation in the hands of patients with primary Raynaud disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007, 133(6):1428-1433.
64. Marhold F., Izay B., Zacherl J., Tschabitscher M., Neumayer C. Thoracoscopic and anatomic landmarks of Kuntz's nerve: implications for sympathetic surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2008, 86(5):1653-1658.
65. Valley M.A., Rogers J.N., Gale D.W. Relief of recurrent upper extremity sympathetically-maintained pain with contralateral sympathetic blocks: evidence for crossover sympathetic innervation?. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995, 10(5):396-400.
66. Ramsaroop L., Partab P., Singh B., Satyapal K.S. Thoracic origin of a sympathetic supply to the upper limb: the 'nerve of Kuntz' revisited. J Anat 2001, 199(Pt. 6):675-682.
67. Hafner J., Della S.D., Zuber C., Christen Y., Bounameaux H. Digital sympathectomy (microarteriolysis) in the treatment of severe Raynaud's phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis. Br J Dermatol 1997, 137(6):1019-1020.
68. Pollock D.C., Li Z., Rosencrance E., Krome J., Koman L.A., Smith T.L. Acute effects of periarterial sympathectomy on the cutaneous microcirculation. J Orthop Res 1997, 15(3):408-413.
69. Yee A.M., Hotchkiss R.N., Paget S.A. Adventitial stripping: a digit saving procedure in refractory Raynaud's phenomenon. J Rheumatol 1998, 25(2):269-276.
70. Balogh B., Mayer W., Vesely M., Mayer S., Partsch H., Piza-Katzer H. Adventitial stripping of the radial and ulnar arteries in Raynaud's disease. J Hand Surg [Am] 2002, 27(6):1073-1080.
71. Wang W.H., Lai C.S., Chang K.P., Lee S.S., Yang C.C., Lin S.D., et al. Peripheral sympathectomy for Raynaud's phenomenon: a salvage procedure. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2006, 22(10):491-499.
72. Kotsis S.V., Chung K.C. A systematic review of the outcomes of digital sympathectomy for treatment of chronic digital ischemia. J Rheumatol 2003, 30(8):1788-1792.
73. Nihtyanova S.I., Denton C.P. Current approaches to the management of early active diffuse scleroderma skin disease. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2008, 34(1):161-179.
74. Nihtyanova S.I., Brough G.M., Black C.M., Denton C.P. Clinical burden of digital vasculopathy in limited and diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67(1):120-123.
75. Marie I., Jouen F., Hellot M.F., Levesque H. Anticardiolipin and anti-beta2 glycoprotein I antibodies and lupus-like anticoagulant: prevalence and significance in systemic sclerosis. Br J Dermatol 2008, 158(1):141-144.
76. Sunderkotter C., Herrgott I., Bruckner C., Moinzadeh P., Pfeiffer C., Gerss J., et al. Comparison of patients with and without digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis: detection of possible risk factors. Br J Dermatol 2009, 160(4):835-843.
77. Sledge C.B. Principles of reconstructive surgery for arthritis. Kelley's textbook of rheumatology 2005, 1836-1852. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia (PA). 7th ed. E.D. Harris, R.C. Budd, G.S. Firestein, M.C. Genovese, J.S. Sergent, S. Ruddy (Eds.).
78. Boin F., Wigley F.M. Understanding, assessing and treating Raynaud's phenomenon. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2005, 17(6):752-760.
79. Freedman R.R., Moten M., Migaly P., Mayes M. Cold-induced potentiation of alpha 2-adrenergic vasoconstriction in primary Raynaud's disease. Arthritis Rheum 1993, 36(5):685-690.
80. Chotani M.A., Flavahan S., Mitra S., Daunt D., Flavahan N.A. Silent alpha(2C)-adrenergic receptors enable cold-induced vasoconstriction in cutaneous arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000, 278(4):H1075-H1083.
81. Bailey S.R., Eid A.H., Mitra S., Flavahan S., Flavahan N.A. Rho kinase mediates cold-induced constriction of cutaneous arteries: role of alpha2C-adrenoceptor translocation. Circ Res 2004, 94(10):1367-1374.
82. Zamora M.R., O'Brien R.F., Rutherford R.B., Weil J.V. Serum endothelin-1 concentrations and cold provocation in primary Raynaud's phenomenon. Lancet 1990, 336(8724):1144-1147.
83. Furspan P.B., Chatterjee S., Freedman R.R. Increased tyrosine phosphorylation mediates the cooling-induced contraction and increased vascular reactivity of Raynaud's disease. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50(5):1578-1585.
84. Furspan P.B., Chatterjee S., Mayes M.D., Freedman R.R. Cooling-induced contraction and protein tyrosine kinase activity of isolated arterioles in secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005, 44(4):488-494.
85. Beretta L., Cossu M., Marchini M., Cappiello F., Artoni A., Motta G., et al. A polymorphism in the human serotonin 5-HT2A receptor gene may protect against systemic sclerosis by reducing platelet aggregation. Arthritis Res Ther 2008, 10(5):R103.
86. Fraenkel L., Zhang Y., Chaisson C.E., Evans S.R., Wilson P.W., Felson D.T. The association of estrogen replacement therapy and the Raynaud phenomenon in postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 1998, 129(3):208-211.
87. Freedman RR, Girgis R, Mayes MD. Acute effect of nitric oxide on Raynaud's phenomenon in scleroderma. Lancet 739;354(9180):739.
88. Lindblad L.E., Shepherd J.T., Vanhoutte P.M. Cooling augments platelet-induced contraction of peripheral arteries of the dog. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1984, 176(2):119-122.
89. Gofeld M., Faclier G. Bilateral pain relief after unilateral thoracic percutaneous sympathectomy. Can J Anaesth 2006, 53(3):258-262.
90. van Maanen M.A., Vervoordeldonk M.J., Tak P.P. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway: towards innovative treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2009, 5(4):229-232.
91. Abeles M., Abeles A. Phosphodiesterase inhibitor tadalafil in the treatment of ischemic digital ulcers/digital necrosis due to scleroderma-associated raynaud's phenomenon. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 58(Suppl):S822.
92. Snyder M.J., Jacobs M.R., Grau R.G., Wilkes D.S., Knox K.S. Resolution of severe digital ulceration during a course of Bosentan therapy. Ann Intern Med 2005, 142(9):802-803.
93. Blagojevic J., Matucci-Cerinic M. Are statins useful for treating vascular involvement in systemic sclerosis?. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 2009, 5(2):70-71.
94. van de Wal H.J., Skotnicki S.H., Wijn P.F., Lacquet L.K. Thoracic sympathectomy as a therapy for upper extremity ischemia. A long-term follow-up study. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1985, 33(3):181-187.
95. Kossintseva I., Barankin B. Improvement in both Raynaud disease and hyperhidrosis in response to botulinum toxin type A treatment. J Cutan Med Surg 2008, 12(4):189-193.
96. Tjiu J.W., Lin S.J., Wang L.F., Shih J.Y., Yu C.J., Liang C.W., et al. Digital infarcts showing microangiopathy in adult dermatomyositis suggest severe pulmonary involvement and poor prognosis. Br J Dermatol 2004, 150(6):1214-1216.
97. Yosipovitch G., Feinmesser M., David M. Adult dermatomyositis with livedo reticularis and multiple skin ulcers. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1998, 11(1):48-50.
98. D'Cruz D. Vasculitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 1998, 7(4):270-274.
99. Nagai Y., Shimizu A., Ishikawa O. Successful treatment with bosentan for refractory digital ulcers in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Dermatol 2008, 35(7):447-451.
100. Cakir O., Ayyildiz O., Isikdogan A. Type III mixed cryoglobulinemia associated with digital necrotic ulcer successfully treated with intermittent intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide-a case report. Angiology 2005, 56(4):489-492.
101. Erhardt C.C., Mumford P., Maini R.N. The association of cryoglobulinaemia with nodules, vasculitis and fibrosing alveolitis in rheumatoid arthritis and their relationship to serum C1q binding activity and rheumatoid factor. Clin Exp Immunol 1979, 38(3):405-413.
102. Chen K.R., Carlson J.A. Clinical approach to cutaneous vasculitis. Am J Clin Dermatol 2008, 9(2):71-92.
103. Carlson J.A., Cavaliere L.F., Grant-Kels J.M. Cutaneous vasculitis: diagnosis and management. Clin Dermatol 2006, 24(5):414-429.
104. Schneider H.A., Yonker R.A., Katz P., Longley S., Panush R.S. Rheumatoid vasculitis: experience with 13 patients and review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1985, 14(4):280-286.
105. Vollertsen R.S., Conn D.L. Vasculitis associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1990, 16(2):445-461.
106. Ben G.I., Dhrif A.S., Miled M., Houman M.H. [Cutaneous manifestations as the initial presentation of Wegener's granulomatosis]. Presse Med 2007, 36(4 Pt 1):619-622.
107. Irvine A.D., Bruce I.N., Walsh M., Burrows D., Handley J. Dermatological presentation of disease associated with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies: a report of two contrasting cases and a review of the literature. Br J Dermatol 1996, 134(5):924-928.
108. Foley S., Gibbs H., Muir J. Painful digital infarction in a male smoker treated as Buerger's disease. Australas J Dermatol 2008, 49(2):94-97.
109. Mills J.L. Buerger's disease in the 21st century: diagnosis, clinical features, and therapy. Semin Vasc Surg 2003, 16(3):179-189.
110. Costenbader K.H., Fidias P., Gilman M.D., Qureshi A., Tambouret R.H. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 29-2006. A 43-year-old woman with painful nodules on the fingertips, shortness of breath, and fatigue. N Engl J Med 2006, 355(12):1263-1272.
111. Garcia Padilla C.E., Quintanilla L. [24-year-old woman with hematuria, mental changes, loss of visual acuity and ulcers on the fingers]. Rev Invest Clin 1990, 42(1):68-74.
112. Enelow R.S., Hussein M., Grant K., Cupps T.R., Druckman D., Mortazavi A., et al. Vasculitis with eosinophilia and digital gangrene in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Rheumatol 1992, 19(11):1813-1816.
113. Libman B.S., Quismorio F.P., Stimmler M.M. Polyarteritis nodosa-like vasculitis in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Rheumatol 1995, 22(2):351-355.
114. Vayssairat M, Gaitz JP, Bamberger N. Digital gangrene, HIV infection and bleomycin treatment. J Rheumatol 921;20(5):921.
115. Au W.Y., Jim M.H., Lam K.Y., Kwong Y.L. Digital gangrene and a mass in the heart. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161(2):292-293.
116. Kumpe D.A., Zwerdlinger S., Griffin D.J. Blue digit syndrome: treatment with percutaneous transluminal angioplasty. Radiology 1988, 166(1 Pt. 1):37-44.
117. Lane J.E., Lane T.N., Shams M., Lane C.E. Cutaneous cholesterol embolization. J Am Acad Dermatol 2009, 60(4):711-713.
118. Burruss J.B., Cohen L.M., Thomas H.A., Callen J.P. Unilateral emboli in a patient with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993, 29(5 Pt 2):838-840.
119. Molos M.A., Hall J.C. Symmetrical peripheral gangrene and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Arch Dermatol 1985, 121(8):1057-1061.
120. Singer R.M., Gorosh J.E. Purpura fulminans. J Hand Surg [Am] 1990, 15(1):172-175.
121. Peyrot I., Garsaud A.M., Saint-Cyr I., Quitman O., Sanchez B., Quist D. Cannabis arteritis: a new case report and a review of literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007, 21(3):388-391.
122. Voyvodic F., Hayward M. Case report: upper extremity ischaemia secondary to ergotamine poisoning. Clin Radiol 1996, 51(8):589-591.
123. Wollina U., Hansel G., Gruner M., Schonlebe J., Heinig B., Kostler E. Painful ANA-positive scleroderma-like disease with acral ulcerations: a case of chronic gangrenous ergotism. Int J Low Extrem Wounds 2007, 6(3):148-152.
124. Ferris B.L., Taylor L.M., Oyama K., McLafferty R.B., Edwards J.M., Moneta G.L., et al. Hypothenar hammer syndrome: proposed etiology. J Vasc Surg 2000, 31(1 Pt. 1):104-113.
125. Karimi K.M., Perlmutter A.E., Freeman B.G. Overuse-related vascular injury of the hand-hypothenar hammer syndrome: a case report. WV Med J 2005, 101(6):250-252.
126. Marie I., Herve F., Primard E., Cailleux N., Levesque H. Long-term follow-up of hypothenar hammer syndrome: a series of 47 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2007, 86(6):334-343.
127. Hedrich C.M., Fiebig B., Hauck F.H., Sallmann S., Hahn G., Pfeiffer C., et al. Chilblain lupus erythematosus-a review of literature. Clin Rheumatol 2008, 27(8):949-954.
128. McCleskey P.E., Winter K.J., Devillez R.L. Tender papules on the hands. Idiopathic chilblains (perniosis). Arch Dermatol 2006, 142(11):1501-1506.
129. Ohtsuka T., Yamakage A., Yamazaki S. Digital ulcers and necroses: novel manifestations of angiocentric lymphoma. Br J Dermatol 2000, 142(5):1013-1016.
130. Pronk W.G., Baars J.P., De Jong P.C., Westermann A.M. Some unusual paraneoplastic syndromes. Case 2. Digital ulceration as a paraneoplastic syndrome in ovarian cancer. J Clin Oncol 2003, 21(13):2620-2622.
131. Tan BB, Lear JT, English JS. Metastasis from carcinoma of breast masquerading as chilblains. J R Soc Med 162;90(3):162.
132. Freedman R.R., Baer R.P., Mayes M.D. Blockade of vasospastic attacks by alpha 2-adrenergic but not alpha 1-adrenergic antagonists in idiopathic Raynaud's disease. Circulation 1995, 92(6):1448-1451.
133. Bailey S.R., Mitra S., Flavahan S., Flavahan N.A. Reactive oxygen species from smooth muscle mitochondria initiate cold-induced constriction of cutaneous arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005, 289(1):H243-H250.
134. Bottomley W., Goodfield M. A pathogenic role for endothelin in Raynaud's phenomenon?. Acta Derm Venereol 1994, 74(6):433-434.