Global governance and international migration: A case study of trafficking of human beings

Refugee Survey Quarterly

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 120-136

  Obokata, Tom ^a  

^a QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLOBALIZATION; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; INTERNATIONAL LAW; INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION; NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION; UNITED NATIONS;

EID: 77956147467     PISSN: 10204067     EISSN: 1471695X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/rsq/hdq004     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. T. Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006, 29.
2. UK Parliamentary Home Affairs Committee, The Trade in Human Being: Human Trafficking in the UK (Sixth Report of Session 2008-2009), 6 May 2009, 3.
3. UN Doc. A/55/25, 15 Nov. 2000.
4. D. Held and A. McGrew, "Introduction", in D. Held and A. McGrew (eds.), Governing Globalization: Power, Authority and Global Governance, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2003, 8.
5. R. Keohane, "Global Governance and Democratic Accountability", in D. Held and M. Koeing-Archibugi (eds.), Taming Globalization, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2003, 132.
6. J. Rosenau, "Governance in a New Global Order", in Governing Globalization.
7. N. Woods, "Good Governance in International Organizations", Global Governance, 5(1), 1999, 39-61, 41.
8. B. Kingsbury, N. Krisch and R.B. Stewart, "The Emergence of Global Administrative Law", Law and Contemporary Problems, 68(3 and 4), 2005, 15-61, 38.
9. C. Harlow, "Global Administrative Law: The Quest for Principles and Values", European Journal of International Law 17(1), 2006, 187-214, 199.
10. R. Oakerson, "Governance Structures for Enhancing Accountability and Responsiveness", in J. L. Perry (ed.), Handbook of Public Administration, San Francisco, Jessey-Bass, 1996, 114.
11. Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighbourhood, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995, 2.
12. The former Secretary-General Kofi Annan also stated that the "international public domain must be opened up further to the participation of the many actors whose contributions are essential to managing the path of globalisation". Report of the Secretary-General: We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century. UN Doc. A/54/2000, 27 March 2000.
13. D. Held, "Law of states, Law of Peoples: Three Models of Sovereignty", Legal Theory, 3(1), 2002, 1-44, 33.
14. L. Finkelstein, "What is Global Governance?", Global Governance 1(3), 1995, 367-372, 367.
15. D. Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern state to Cosmopolitan Governance, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1995, 273.
16. R. Falk and A. Strauss, "On the Creation of a Global Peoples Assembly: Legitimacy and the Power of Popular Sovereignty", Stanford Journal of International Law, 36(2), 2000, 191-220.
17. N. Krisch, "The Pluralism of Global Administrative Law", European Journal of International Law, 17(1). 2006, 247-278, 256.
18. R. Keohane and J. Nye, "Introduction", in J. Nye and J. Donahue (eds.), Governance in a Globalizing World, Washington D.C., Brookings Institution, 2000, 37.
19. N. Woods, "Global Governance and the Role of Institutions", in Held and McGrew (eds.), Governing Globalisation.
20. ICJ, Reparations for Injuries suffered in the Service of the United Nations, ICJ Reports 1949.
21. A. Reinisch, International Organisations before National Courts, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, 133.
22. Article 5(3) of the Treaty on European Union as revised by the Lisbon Treaty, OJ C 115/1 (9 May 2008). It provides that "(u)nder the principle of subsidiarity, in areas which do not fall within its exclusive competence, the Union shall act only if and in so far as the objectives of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member states, either at central level or at regional and local level, but can rather, by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed action, be better achieved at Union level".
23. Art. 3 of the Trafficking Protocol provides the following internationally accepted definition of trafficking: "'Trafficking in persons' shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.".
24. What is evident is that trafficking can take place for both sexual and non-sexual purposes.
25. P. Williams and G. Baudin-O'Hayon, "Global Governance, Transnational Organised Crime and Money Laundering", in Held and McGrew (eds.), Governing Globalisation.
26. They include the Council of Europe Convention on the Action against Trafficking of Human Beings 2005, ETS No. 197, and the Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors 1994, 33 ILM 721 (1994).
27. Art. 8 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 (ICCPR), 999UNTS 171, Art. 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR), ETS No. 5, Art. 6 of the American Convention on Human Rights 1969 (ACHR), 1144 UNTS 123, and Art. 5 of the African Charter of Human and Peoples' Rights 1986 (African Charter), 21 ILM 58 (1982).
28. UN Doc. E/2002/68/Add.1, 20 May 2002.
29. See for instance, Catholic Relief Service, available at http://crs.org/public-policy/principles.cfm.
30. Nordic-Baltic Network, available at http://nordicbaltic-assistwomen.net/spip.php?article5 (last visited 10 Dec. 2009).
31. They are adopted by private corporations such as Philip Morris International, available at http://www.philipmorrisinternational.com/global/downloads/ci/code.pdfm.
32. Nike, available at http://www.nikebiz.com/responsibility/documents/Nike_Code_of_Conduct.pdf.
33. GAP, available at http://www.gapinc.com/public/documents/code_vendor_conduct.pdf (last visited 10 Dec. 2009).
34. See for example, 40 Recommendations on Money Laundering (2003), adopted by the Financial Action Task Force (an inter-governmental body which sets standards, and develops and promotes policies to combat money laundering and terrorist financing), available at http://www.fatf-gafi.org/dataoecd/7/40/34849567.PDF.
35. The Global Plan for Recovery and Reform (April 2009) adopted by the leaders of G20 States, which include its position on bank secrecy, available at https://www.g20.org/Documents/finalcommunique.pdf (last visited 10 Dec. 2009).
36. These are provided in, among others, Arts. 16, 18, 19, and 26 of the Organized Crime Convention, and Arts. 10 and 11 of the Trafficking Protocol.
37. Informal Note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc. A/AC.254/16, 1 Jun. 1999, and Note by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the United Nations Children's Fund and the International Organization for Migration on the draft protocols concerning migrant smuggling and trafficking in persons, UN Doc. A/AC.254/27, 8 Feb. 2000.
38. More information is available at http://www.eaves4women.co.uk/POPPY_Project/POPPY_Project.php (last visited 10 Dec. 2009).
39. Available at http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/index.html (last visited 10 Dec. 2000).
40. Art. 10 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 (ICESCR), 993 UNTS 3, Art. 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 (CRC), 1577 UNTS 3, and Art. 17 of the ACHR.
41. Established by the ICCPR.
42. Established by the CRC.
43. Established by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 1979, 1249 UNTS 13.
44. They are Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, and Special Rapporteur on Sales of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, and Special Representative on Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises. For more information, visit http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/special/themes.htm (last visited 10 Dec. 2009).
45. In Siliadin v France, for instance, the European Court held that France was in breach of Art. 4 on the prohibition of slavery and forced labour. ECtHR, Siliadin v France (Merit and Just Satisfaction), (2006) 43 EHRR 16.
46. On this, see T. Obokata, "Trafficking of Human Beings as a Crime against Humanity: Some Implications for the International Legal System", International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 54(2), 2005, 445-458.
47. V.S. Khanna, "Corporate Criminal Liability: What Purpose Does it Serve?", Harvard Law Review, 109(7), 1995-1996, 1477-1534.
48. International Law Association (ILA), Final Report on Accountability of International Organisations (2004), 53.
49. Reinisch points to the exception of the European Communities, where cases can be brought against their organs such as the European Commission.
50. A. Reinisch, "Securing the Accountability of International Organizations", Global Governance, 7(2), 2001, 131-149, at 133.
51. 1 UNTS 15.
52. Investigation into Sexual Exploitation of Refugees by Aid Workers in West Africa: Note by the Secretary-General, UN Doc, A/57/465, 11 Oct. 2002.
53. F. Rawski, "To Waive or Not to Waive: Immunity and Accountability in U.N. Peacekeeping Operations", Connecticut Journal of International Law, 18(1), 2002-2003, 103-132.
54. Amnesty International, So Does It Mean That We Have the Rights?: Protecting the Human Rights of Women and Girls Trafficked for Forced Prostitution in Kosovo (May 2004), A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General's Special Adviser, A/59/710, 24 Mar. 2005, Refugee International, RI Bulletin: A Powerful Voice for Humanitarian Action (Mar. 2005).
55. A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-state Actors, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006, 132.
56. He gives an example of the involvement of UNMIK in human trafficking.
57. UN Doc, ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 Oct. 2003.
58. N. Boister, "Transnational Criminal Law", European Journal of International Law, 14(5), 2003, 953-976, 955.
59. UN Doc, A/CONF.183/9, 17 Jul. 1998.
60. ICTY, Prosecutor v Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 7 May 1997, para. 648; ICTY, Prosecutor Blaskic, Case No. IT-95-14-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 3 Mar. 2000, para. 206; and ICTR, Prosecutor Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 2 Sep. 1998, para.580.
61. See for instance, T. Thompson, "Snakehead Empress Who Made MillionsTrafficking in Misery", The Guardian, 6 Jul. 2003, available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2003/jul/06/immigration.china (last visited 26 Dec. 2009).
62. It should be noted that Article 14 of the Trafficking Protocol does say that the Protocol itself does not affect the rights, obligations and responsibilities of States and individuals under international law, including IHRL.
63. Inter-Am.Ct.H.R., Velasquez Rodriguez v. Honduras, (1988), Ser. C, No. 1, para. 176.
64. See also D. Shelton, "Private Violations, Public Wrongs, and the Responsibility of states", Fordham International Law Journal, 13(1), 1989-1990, 1-s34, 24.
65. N. Roht-Arriaza, "State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law", California Law Review, 78(2), 1990, 449-514, 489-504.
66. See, for instance, Art. 9 (Liberty and Security) and Art. 14 (Fair Trial) of the ICCPR.