Global administrative law: The quest for principles and values

European Journal of International Law

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 187-214

  Harlow, Carol ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33645878922     PISSN: 09385428     EISSN: 14643596     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ejil/chi158     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. For fuller expression of these views, see C. Harlow, 'Voices of Difference in a Plural Community', 50 American J Comparative L (2002) 339
2. and 'Deconstructing Governance', 23 Yearbook of European Law (2004) 57.
3. Cassese, 'Shrimps, Turtles and Procedure: Global Standards for National Administrations', IILJ Working Paper No. 2004/4 at 19.
4. F. Snyder, Governing Economic Globalisation: Global Legal Pluralism and EU Law (2002), at 10-11.
5. Kingsbury, Krisch and Stewart, 'The Emergence of Global Administrative Law', 68 Law & Contemporary Problems (2005) 15. See also the Introduction to this Symposium.
6. Snyder, supra note 3, at 11.
7. Muchlinski, 'Globalisation and Legal Research', 37 The Int'l Lawyer (2003) 221, at 237.
8. See further P. Cane, Responsibility in Law and Morality (2002).
9. For the provisions governing interpretation and application, see Part II, Title VII, Arts 111-114. No prediction is made here as to the ultimate fate of this document.
10. Shapiro, 'Administrative Law Unbounded', 8 Indiana J Global Legal Studies (2001) 369.
11. The unwritten, common law British constitution, an apparent exception, is not formally a Separation of Powers constitution, but it strongly recognizes the independence of the judiciary and the embargo on judicial policy-making: See J. Allison, A Continental Distinction in the Common Law, A Historical and Comparative Perspective on English Public Law (1996).
12. Marbury v Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 2 L Ed 60 (1803).
13. Conseil d'Etat, 19 Feb. 1875, Prince Napoléon, Rec. 155, concl. David.
14. Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374.
15. S. Cassese, Instituzioni di Diritto Amministrativo (2004), at 1: Il diritto amministrativo è quell ram o del diritto the disciplina la pubblica amministrazione e i suoi rapporti con i privati.
16. Compare Piva, 'An Introduction to Italian Public Law', 2 European Public Law (1995) 299, at 300.
17. H.W.R. Wade and C. Forsyth, Administrative Law (8th edn., 2000), at 4-5.
18. Art. 37 of the French Constitution governs the present division of regulatory function in the modern French system; on the history, see M. Troper, La séparation des pouvoirs et l'histoire constitutionnelle française (1980).
19. Anglo-American systems differ, in theory if not in practice, by reference to theories of delegation: On the differences, see Lindseth, 'The Paradox of Parliamentary Supremacy: Delegation, Democracy, and Dictatorship in Germany and France, 1920s-1950s', 113 Yale LJ (2004) 1341.
20. C. Debbasch, Institutions et droits administratifs (1976), at 17.
21. See also Jèze, Les principes généraux du droit administratif (3rd edn., 1926);
22. L. Duguit, Leçons du droit public general (1926);
23. L. Duguit, Traité du droit constitutionnel (3rd edn., 1927-1930).
24. See for Italy, S. Cassese, Le Basi del diritto amministrativo (3rd edn., 1995), at 13,
25. and for the US, K.C. Davis, Administrative Law Text (3rd edn., 1972), at 1: 'Administrative law is the law concerning the powers and procedures of administrative agencies, including especially the law governing judicial review of administrative action.'
26. The four classical sub-categories of review in French administrative law - illegality, irrationality, procedural error, and wrong purpose - are not entirely confined to the procedural, though in practice the procedural grounds for review dominate the case law: See generally, J.-M. Auby, Traité de Contentieux Administratif (1984).
27. It is sometimes said that Italian law does not observe these principles, but see the Administrative Procedures Law 241 of 7 Aug. 1990 and Cassese, supra note 2, at 325 ff.
28. Shapiro, 'The Institutionalization of European Administrative Space' in A. Stone Sweet, W. Sandholtz, and N. Fligstein, The Institutionalisation of Europe (2001), at 94.
29. Lenaerts and Vanhamme, 'Procedural Rights of Private Parties in the Community Administrative Process', 34 CML Rev (1997) 53.
30. And see generally H.P. Nehl, Principles of Administrative Law (1998).
31. Shapiro, 'APA: Past, Present and Future', 72 Virginia L Rev (1986) 447
32. Shapiro, 'The Giving Reasons Requirement' [1992] U Chicago Legal Forum 179.
33. M. Aronson, B. Dyer, and M. Groves, Judicial Review of Administrative Action (3rd edn., 2004), at 1.
34. Bignami, 'Three Generations of Participation Rights in European Administrative Proceedings', 68 Law and Contemporary Problems (2005) 61.
35. Larsson, 'How Open Can a Government Be? The Swedish Experience' in V. Deckmyn and I. Thomson (eds), Openness and Transparency in the European Union (1998);
36. C. Harlow, 'Freedom of Information and Transparency as Administrative and Constitutional Rights', 2 Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies (1999) 285.
37. P. Birkinshaw, Freedom of Information (3rd edn., 2001).
38. Taggart, 'The Province of Administrative law Determined' in M. Taggart (ed.), The Province of Administrative Law (1997), at 4.
39. Ibid. (emphasis mine).
40. On the consequences, see variously: Aronson, 'A Public Lawyer's Responses to Privatisation and Outsourcing' in Taggart (ed.), supra note 27
41. Freedland, 'Government by Contract and Public Law' [1994] Public Law 86
42. Freeman, 'The Private Role in Public Governance', 75 NYU L Rev (2000) 543
43. Daintith, 'Contractual Discretion and Administrative Discretion: A Unified Analysis', 68 MLR (2005) 554.
44. Taggart, supra note 27.
45. Compare Dubois et al., 'La contestation du droit administratif dans le champ intellectuel et politique' in J. Chevallier et al., Le droit administratif en mutation (1993).
46. And see M. Freedland and S. Sciarra (eds), Public Services and Citizenship in European Law, Public and Labour Law Perspectives (1998).
47. Kingsbury, Krisch, and Stewart, supra note 3.
48. See J. Schwarze (ed.), Administrative Law under European Influence (1996).
49. See F. Neumann, The Rule of Law: Political Theory and the Legal System in Modern Society (1986)
50. and the commentary of R. Cotterell, Law's Community. Legal Theory in Sociological Perspective (1995), at 164-177.
51. See Seidel, 'Constitutional Aspects of the Economic and Monetary Union' in F. Snyder (ed.), Constitutional Dimensions of European Economic Integration (1996), at 476
52. and Streit and Mussler, 'The Economic Constitution of the European Community: "From Rome to Maastricht"', in ibid.
53. Everson, 'The Legacy of the Market Citizen' in J. Shaw and G. More (eds), New Legal Dynamics of European Union (1995).
54. J. Gray, False Dawn, The Delusions of Global Capitalism (1998), at 9.
55. Stone Sweet, 'What is a Supranational Constitution? An Essay in International Relations Theory', 3 The Review of Politics (1994) 441, at 463.
56. Petersmann, 'How to Reform the United Nations System? Constitutionalism, International Law and International Organizations', 10 Leiden J Int'l L (1997) 421, at 463.
57. Petersmann, 'European and International Constitutional Law: Time for Promoting Cosmopolitan Democracy in the WTO' in G. de Burca and J. Scott (eds), The EU and the WTO (2001), at 81-110.
58. Muchlinski, 'Human Rights, Social Responsibility and the Regulation of International Business: The Development of International Standards by Intergovernmental Organisations', 3 Non-state Actors and Int'l L (2003) 123, at 125.
59. Here Muchlinski cites Petersmann and J.H. Jackson: See, e.g., Jackson, 'The WTO "Constitution" and Proposed Reforms: Seven Mantras Revisited', 4 J Int'l Economic L (2001) 67.
60. Muchlinski, 'International Business Regulation: An Ethical Discourse in the Making?' in T. Campbell and S. Miller (eds), Human Rights and the Moral Responsibilities of Corporate and Public Sector Organisations (2004), at 99.
61. See similarly Ma]one, 'The Rise of the Regulatory State in Europe', 17 W European Politics (1994) 77
62. G. Majone (ed), Regulating Europe (1996).
63. Muchlinski, supra note 40, at 146.
64. And see Petersmann, 'Rights and International Economic Law in the 21st Century: The Need to Clarify Their Interrelationship', 4 J Int'l Economic L (2001) 4.
65. Craig, 'Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law: An Analytical Framework' [1997] Public Law 467.
66. 2 J Int'l Commission of Jurists (1959), at 7-13
67. International Commission of Jurists, The Rule of Law and Human Rights - Principles and Definitions (1966).
68. Weiler, 'The Rule of Lawyers and the Ethos of Diplomats: Reflections on the Internal and External Legitimacy of WTO Dispute Settlement', available at www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers No. 00/0090 (Part III).
69. Cassese, supra note 2.
70. For the concept of juristocracy, see R. Hirschl, Towards Juristocracy: The Origins and Consequences of the New Constitution (2004).
71. D. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (1998).
72. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (1989).
73. See S. Mallaby, The World's Banker (2004), especially ch. 7, where the influence of anthropologist Scott Guggenheim is noted, together with his conclusion that the key to real development in Indonesia lay 'in building grass-roots democratic institutions under the feet of a dictator'.
74. Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', 14 Third World Quarterly (1993) 605, at 611.
75. See also Grindle, 'Good Enough Governance: Poverty Reduction and Reform in Developing Countries', 17 Governance (2004) 525.
76. Ibid., at 609.
77. Ibid., at 605.
78. D. Held and A. McGrew, Globalization/Anti-Globalization (2002), at 131-132.
79. Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighbourhood (1995), at 66, where democracy is linked to legitimacy and effectiveness and the rule of law is called 'the administrative value'.
80. On this link see Malaret Garcia, 'Public Service, Public Services, Public Functions, and Guarantees of the Rights of Citizens: Unchanging Needs in a Changed Context', in Freedland and Sciarra, supra note 30.
81. Hood, 'A Public Management for All Seasons', 69 Public Administration (1991) 3. Hood calls the former sigma and the latter theta values, situating both inside public administration.
82. Ibid.
83. For the spread of NPM in Europe, see D. Farnham et al., New Public Managers in Europe (1996).
84. See the PUMA Report, Ethics in the Public Service, available at www.oecd.org.
85. And see PUMA Policy Brief No 10, Citizens in Policy-making, Information, Consultation and Public Participation, available at http://www.sigmaweb.org/LongAbstract/ 0,2546,en_33638100_34612958_35063275_119696_1_1_1,00.html.
86. These led ultimately to the resignation of the Santer Commission: See C. Harlow, Accountability in the European Union (2002), at 53-57
87. Tomkins, 'Responsibility and Resignation in the European Commission', 62 MLR (1999) 744.
88. Committee of Independent Experts, First Report on Allegations of Fraud, Mismanagement and Nepotism in the European Commission (15 Mar. 1999), para. 9.4.25.
89. European Commission, White Paper on European Governance (WPEG), COM(2001) 428 final [2001] OJ C287/1.
90. Ibid., at 10 defines accountability as follows: 'Roles in the legislative and executive processes need to be clearer. Each of the EU institutions must explain and take responsibility for what it does in Europe. But there is also a need for greater clarity and responsibility from Member States and all those involved in developing and implementing EU policy at whatever level.'
91. Cohen and Sabel, 'Directly Deliberative Polyarchy', 3 ELJ (1997) 313
92. Gerstenberg and Sabel, 'Directly-Deliberastive Polyarchy: An Institutional Ideal for Europe?' in C. Joerges and R. Dehousse (eds), Good Governance in Europe's Integrated Market (2002);
93. Scott and Trubek, 'Mind the Gap: Law and New Approaches to Governance in the European Union', 8 ELJ (2002) 1.
94. Art. 46 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights: Final [2000] OJ C364/1, now incorporated as Part II of the European Constitutional Treaty provides: 'The Union institutions shall, by appropriate means, give citizens and representative associations the opportunity to make known and publicly exchange their views on all areas of Union action. The Union institutions shall maintain an open, transparent and regular dialogue with representative associations and civil society. The Commission shall carry out broad consultations with parties concerned in order to ensure that the union's actions are coherent and transparent.'
95. WPEG, supra note 63, at 16.
96. And see Commission Communication, 'Promoting the Role of Voluntary Organisations and Foundations in Europe', COM(97)241 final;
97. Commission Communication, 'The Commission and Non-governmental Organisations: Building a Stronger Partnership', COM(2000)11 final;
98. Commission Communication, 'General Principles and Minimum Standards for Consulting Non-institutional Interested Parties', COM(2002)277.
99. WPEG, supra note 63, at 15 and 17 (emphasis mine).
100. Bignami, 'Creating Rights in the Age of Global Governance: Mental Maps and Strategic Interests in Europe', available at http://law.bepress.commission/expresso/eps/390, at 21.
101. See Case T-135/96 UEAPME v Council [1998] ECR II-2335 (challenge by a group not consulted in consultation procedures; successful only on the point of standing).
102. See notably Case C-68/94 Netherlands v Council [1996] ECRI-2169, and for comment Dyrberg, 'Current Issues in the Debate on Public Access to Documents', 24 EL Rev (1999) 157.
103. And see Curtin, 'Citizens' Fundamental Right of Access to EU Information: An Evolving Digital Passepartout?', 37 CML Rev (2000) 7.
104. This is particularly the case with England, where the struggle for freedom of information has been bitter and courts have been more inclined to protect official secrecy: See P. Birkinshaw, Freedom of Information (3rd edn., 2001).
105. For the EU, where similar limitations obtained, see Harlow, 'Freedom of Information and Transparency as Administrative and Constitutional Rights', 2 Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies (1999) 285.
106. Administrative Procedure Act, 60 Stat 237 (1946), as amended by 80 Stat 378 (1966) and 81 Stat 54 (1967).
107. To follow the well-known turns, see Sierra Club v Morton, 405 US 727 (1972);
108. Lujan v Defenders of Wildlife, 504 US 555 (1992);
109. Friends of the Earth, Inc v Laidlaw Environmental Services, 528 US 167 (2000).
110. And compare Sunstein, 'Standing and the Privatisation of Public Law', 88 Col L Rev (1988) 1432
111. Sunstein, 'What's Standing After Lujan? Of Citizen Suits, "Injuries", and Article III', 91 Michigan L Rev (1992) 163.
112. Harlow, 'Towards a Theory of Access for the European Court of Justice', 12 Yearbook of European Law (1992) 213.
113. And see Case T-177/01 Jégo-Qúeré et Cie SA v Commission [2002] ECR II-2365
114. Case C 50/00 Unión de Pequenos Agricultores v Council [2002] ECR II-2365, with Opinion of Jacobs AG;
115. Case C-263/02P Commission v Jégo-Quéré et Cie SA [2004] ECR I-3425.
116. Aman Jr, 'Administrative Law for a New Century' in M. Taggart (ed.), The Province of Administrative Law (1997), at 95.
117. The recognition is generally attributed to the seminal article by Stewart, 'The Reformation of American Administrative Law', 88 Harv L Rev (1975) 1667.
118. United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, Report of the Appellate Body WT/DS58/AB/R (12 Oct. 1998), available at www.sice.oas.org/DISPUTE/wto/58abr.asp.
119. Ibid., AB ruling at para 16.
120. Compare the ECJ in UEAPME, supra note 70.
121. Charnovitz, 'Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance', 18 Michigan J Int'l L (1997) 183
122. Curtin, 'Private Interest Representation or Civil Society Deliberation? A Contemporary Dilemma for European Union Governance', 12 Social & Legal Studies (2003) 56.
123. Due process rights have their origin in criminal procedure, as the French term, les droits de la défense, reveals. In this guise they have a long pedigree, stretching back in Anglo-American culture to Magna Carta through Amendments V, VI, and XIV of the US Constitution.
124. See for a global survey S. Guinchard et al., Droit processuel, Droit commun et droit compare du procès (3rd edn., 2005).
125. M. Bayles, Procedural Justice: Allocating to Individuals (1990).
126. R v Lord Chancellor ex p Witham [1997] 2 All ER 779, at 783-784.
127. See the Report of the Committee of the unofficial JUSTICE/All Souls Review of Administrative Law in the United Kingdom, Administrative Justice - Some Necessary Reforms (1988), at 71.
128. And see Richardson, 'The Duty to Give Reasons: Potential and Practice' [1986] Public Law 437.
129. Case 222/86 UNECTEF v Heylens [1987] ECR 4097. The duty to give reasons is imposed by the EC Treaty in TEC Art. 253 (ex 190).
130. Case 222/84 Johnston v Royal Ulster Constabulary [1986] ECR 1651.
131. Heylens, supra note 85.
132. Anthony, 'Community Law and the Development of UK Administrative Law: Delimiting the "Spill-Over" Effect', 4 European Public Law (1998) 253.
133. P. Weil, Le Droit Administratif (1973), at 80 (author's free translation).
134. Abraham, 'Les principes généraux de la protection juridictionnelle administrative en Europe: L'influence des jurisprudences européennes', 9 European Public L Rev (1997) 577, at 582 (author's translation).
135. Case 17/74 Transocean Marine Paint v Commission [1974] ECR 1063.
136. See generally H-P. Nehl, Principles of Administrative Procedure in EC Law (1998).
137. The divergent case law of the two courts is noted by Sherlock at (1993) 18 EL Rev 465.
138. Gunichard et al., supra note 81, at 59-87.
139. L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law (1988), at 666.
140. See also Mashaw, 'Dignitary Process: A Political Psychology of Liberal Democratic Citizenship', 39 U Florida L Rev (1987) 433.
141. Richardson, 'The Legal Regulation of Process' in G. Richardson and H. Germ (eds), Administrative Law and Government Action (1994), at 114.
142. Art 10 provides: 'Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.'
143. Bradley, 'Administrative justice: A Developing Human Right?', 1 European Public Law (1995) 347.
144. See generally Hickman, 'The "Uncertain Shadow": Throwing Light on the Right to a Court under Article 6(1) ECHR' [2004] Public Law 122.
145. Bryan v UK (1996) 21 EHRR 342
146. Zumtobel v Austria (1994) 17 EHRR 116.
147. Kanska, 'Towards Administrative Human Rights in the EU: Impact of the Charter of Fundamental Rights', 10 ELJ (2004) 296.
148. N. Dorsen et al., Comparative Constitutionalism: Cases and Materials (2003), at 10.
149. See also Ackerman, 'The Rise of World Constitutionalism', 83 Virginia L Rev (1996) 771
150. Guinchard et al., supra note 81.
151. Teitel, 'New Approaches to Comparative Law: Comparativism and International Governance', 117 Harv L Rev (2004) 2570, at 2593, a critical review of Dorsen et al.
152. Cases T-306/01 and T-315/01 Ahmed Ali Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation and Yassin Abdullah Kadi v Council and Commission, 21 Sept. 2005, not yet reported, Press Release No. 79/05.
153. Taggart, supra note 27.
154. A. Aman Jr, The Democracy Deficit (2004), at 136.
155. Bell, 'Mechanisms for Cross-fertilisation of Administrative Law in Europe' in J. Beatson and T. Tridimas (eds), New Directions in European Public Law (1998).
156. The International Ombudsman Institute is hosted by the University of Alberta; its reports and further information are available at www.law.ualberta.ca/centres.
157. Abraham, supra note 90.
158. Bignami, supra note 24.
159. Polakiewicz and Foltzer, 'The ECHR in Domestic Law: The Impact of the Strasbourg Case-Law in States where Direct Effect is given to the Convention', 12 Human Rights LJ (1991) 125, at 142
160. Schwarze, supra note 32
161. A.-M. Slaughter, A New World Order (2004), at 132
162. Slaughter, 'A Typology of Transjudicial Communication' (1994) 28 University of Richmond Law Review 100.
163. N. Ferguson, Empire, How Britain Made the Modern World (2003), at pp. xx-xxii.
164. Leben, 'Is there a European Approach to Human Rights?' in P. Alston (ed.), The European Union and Human Rights (1999), at 70-71.
165. Ibid.
166. Miller, 'A Typology of Legal Transplants: Using Sociology, Legal History and Argentine Examples to Explain the Transplant Process', 51 American J Comparative L (2004) 838.
167. Ibid., at 857.
168. Ibid., at 863.
169. And see Moscoti, 'Reforming the Laws on Public Procurement in the Developing World: The Example of Kenya', 54 ICLQ (2005) 621
170. P. Sands, Lawless World (2005).
171. Leftwich, supra note 51.
172. Grindle, supra note 51.
173. Weiler, supra note 46.
174. Supra note 103.
175. Hunter Wade, 'What Strategies are Viable for Developing Countries Today? The WTO and the Shrinking of Development Space', 10 Review of International Political Economy (2003) 4.
176. Mei-Ying Hung, 'China's WTO Commitment on Independent Judicial Review: Impact on Legal and Political Reform', 52 AJCL (2004) 77
177. R. Peerenboom, China's Long March Toward Rule of Law (2002).
178. Pollack, 'Supranational Autonomy' in Sandholtz et al., supra note 20.
179. Andersen and Burns, 'The European Union and the Erosion of Parliamentary Democracy: A Study of Post-parliamentary Governance' in S. Andersen and K. Eliassen (eds), The European Union: How Democratic Is It? (1996), at 229.
180. Bignami, supra note 69.
181. Weiler, 'A Quiet Revolution - The European Court of Justice and its Interlocutors', 26 Comparative Political Studies (1994) 510.
182. Snyder, supra note 2.
183. See Carozza, 'Subsidiarity as a Structural Principle of International Human Rights Law', 97 AJIL (2003) 38.
184. Muchlinski, supra note 42, at 99
185. Muchlinski, supra note 5, at 240.
186. See also Chalmers, 'Post-nationalism and the Quest for Constitutional Substitutes', 17 J Legal Stud (2000) 178.
187. Cerny, 'Globalization and the End of Democracy', 36 European Journal of Political Research (1999) 1.
188. Dahl, 'Can International Organizations be Democratic? A Skeptic's View', in I. Shapiro and C. Hacker-Cordon (eds), Democracy's Edges (1999).
189. R. Dehousse, The European Court of Justice (1998);
190. Mancini, 'The Making of a Constitution for Europe', 26 CML Rev (1989) 595
191. Weiler, 'A Quiet Revolution - The European Court of Justice and its Interlocutors', 26 Comparative Political Studies (1994) 510.
192. For a less favourable account, see H. Rasmussen, On Law and Policy in the Court of Justice (1986).
193. Slaughter, supra note 110, at 132.
194. And see McCrudden, 'A Common Law of Human Rights? Transnational Judicial Conversations on Constitutional Rights' in K. O'Donovan and G. Rubin (eds), Human Rights and Legal History, Essays in Honour of Brian Simpson (2000).
195. The second citation is from M.-A. Glendon, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse (1991), at 158.
196. A. Aman, The Democracy Deficit (2004), at 178.
197. Ibid., at 138.
198. Ibid.
199. Koskenniemi, 'The Effects of Rights on Political Culture' in Alston, supra note 112, at 114.
200. Stewart, 'Madison's Nightmare', 57 U Chicago L Rev (1990) 335, at 342, 346.