Should Students Have a Gap Year? Motivation and Performance Factors Relevant to Time Out After Completing School

Journal of Educational Psychology

Volumn 102, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 561-576

  Martin, Andrew J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Academic performance; Gap year; Motivation; Structural equation modeling

Indexed keywords

EID: 77955731770     PISSN: 00220663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0019321     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Adams M. Pedagogical frameworks for social justice. Teaching for diversity and social justice 1997, 30-43. Routledge, London, England. M. Adams, L.A. Bell, P. Griffin (Eds.).
2. Ajzen I. From intentions to action: A theory of planned behavior. Action control: From cognitions to behaviors 1985, 11-39. Springer, New York, NY. J. Kuhl, J. Beckman (Eds.).
3. Ajzen I. Attitudes, personality and behavior 1988, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England.
4. Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1991, 50:179-211.
5. Ajzen I., Fishbein M. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior 1980, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
6. Anderman E.A., Midgley C. Changes in personal achievement goals and the perceived classroom goal structures across the transition to middle level schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology 1997, 22:269-298.
7. Armitage C.J., Conner M. Efficacy of the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology 2001, 40:471-499.
8. Bagozzi R.P., Yi Y. The degree of intention formation as a moderator of the attitude-behavior relationship. Social Psychology Quarterly 1989, 52:266-279.
9. Ball S., Vincent C., Kemp S., Pietikainen S. Middle class fractions, childcare and the " relational" and " normative" aspects of class practices. Sociological Review 2004, 52:478-502.
10. Barrett E., Powell J. Deferring students who did not re-enroll at the University of New South Wales in 1976 (Research and Development Paper No. 44) 1977, University of New South Wales, Tertiary Education Research Centre, Kensington, Australia.
11. Bassili J.N. Response latency versus certainty as indexes of the strength of voting intentions in a CAT1 survey. Public Opinion Quarterly 1993, 57:54-61.
12. Berkner L., He S., Forrest-Cataldi E., Knepper P. Descriptive summary of 1995-96 beginning postsecondary students: Six years later (Report No. 2003-151) 2003, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC.
13. Betts T. Pre-departure counselling and an email contact service for patients with epilepsy faring abroad for long periods of time. Seizure 2004, 13:139-141.
14. Birch E.B., Miller P.W. The characteristics of " gap-year" students and their tertiary academic outcomes. Economic Record 2007, 83:329-344.
15. Bong M. Problems in academic motivation research and advantages and disadvantages of their solutions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 1996, 21:149-165.
16. Bornholt L., Gientzotis J., Cooney G. Understanding choice behaviours: Pathways from school to university with changing aspirations and opportunities. Social Psychology of Education 2004, 7:221-228.
17. Brown P., Hesketh A. The mismanagement of talent: Employability and jobs in the knowledge economy 2004, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
18. Brown S. Travelling with purpose: Understanding the motives and benefits of volunteer vacationers. Current Issues in Tourism 2005, 8:479-496.
19. Bryk A.S., Raudenbush S.W. Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods 1992, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
20. Byrne B.M. Structural equation modeling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming 1998, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
21. Chou C., Bentler P.M. Invariant standardised estimated parameter change for model modification in covariance structure analysis. Multivariate Behavioural Research 1993, 28:97-110.
22. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences 1988, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. 2nd ed.
23. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychological Bulletin 1992, 112:155-159.
24. Conner M., Armitage C.J. Extending the theory of planned behavior: A review and avenues for further research. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1998, 28:1429-1464.
25. Elliot A.J., Sheldon K.M. Avoidance achievement motivation: A personal goals analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997, 73:171-185.
26. Elsworth G., Day N., Hurworth R., Andrews J. From school to tertiary study: Transition to college and university in Victoria (Monograph No. 14) 1982, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia.
27. Fishbein M. Predicting, understanding, and changing socially relevant behaviors: Lessons learned. The message of social psychology 1997, 77-91. Blackwell, Oxford, England. C. McGarty, S.A. Haslam (Eds.).
28. Fishbein M., Ajzen I. Belief; attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research 1975, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
29. Galani-Moutafi V. The self and the other: Traveler, ethnographer, tourist. Annals of Tourism Research 2000, 27:203-224.
30. Godin G., Kok G. The theory of planned behavior: A review of its applications to health-related behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion 1996, 11:87-98.
31. Goldstein H. Multilevel statistical models 2003, Hodder Arnold, London, England. 3rd ed.
32. Gollwitzer P.M. Action phases and mind-sets. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior 1990, 53-92. Guilford Press, New York, NY. E.T. Higgins, R.M. Sorrentino (Eds.).
33. Gollwitzer P.M. Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European review of social psychology 1993, 4:141-185. Wiley, Chichester, England. W. Stroebe, M. Hewstone (Eds.).
34. Gollwitzer P.M. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist 1999, 54:493-503.
35. Graham J.W., Hoffer S.M. Multiple imputation in multivariate research. Modeling longitudinal and multilevel data: Practical issues, applied approaches, and specific examples 2000, 201-218. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. T.D. Little, K.U. Schnable, J. Baumert (Eds.).
36. Green J., Martin A.J., Marsh H.W. Motivation and engagement in English, mathematics and science high school subjects: Towards an understanding of multidimensional domain specificity. Learning and Individual Differences 2007, 17:269-279.
37. Hattie J.A. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement 2009, Routledge, Oxford, England.
38. Hayes D., Mills M., Christie P., Lingard B. Teachers and schooling make a difference: Productive pedagogies, assessment, and performance 2006, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, Australia.
39. Heath S. Widening the gap: Pre-university gap years and the " economy of experience." British Journal of Sociology of Education 2007, 28:89-103.
40. Heckhausen H. Motivation and action 1991, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
41. Hillman K. The first year experience: The transition from secondary school to university and TAFE in Australia (Research Report No. 40) 2005, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia.
42. Horn L., Carroll C. Stopouts or stayouts? Undergraduates who leave college in their first year (Report No. 1999-087) 1998, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC.
43. Jöreskog K.G., Sörbom D. LISREL 7: A guide to the program and applications 1988, SPSS, New York, NY. 2nd ed.
44. Jöreskog K.G., Sörbom D. LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language 1993, Scientific Software International, Chicago, IL.
45. Jöreskog K.G., Sörbom D. LISREL 8.80 2006, Scientific Software International, Chicago, IL.
46. Jones A. Review of gap year provision (Research Brief No. RB555) 2004, Department for Education and Skills, London, England.
47. Kaplan D. Evaluating and modifying covariance structure models: A review and recommendation. Multivariate Behavioural Research 1990, 25:137-155.
48. Karoly P. Expanding the conceptual range of health self-regulation research: A commentary. Psychology and Health 1998, 13:741-746.
49. Krause K., Hartley R., James R., McInnis C. The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from a decade of national studies 2005, Department of Education, Science and Training, Canberra, Australia.
50. Lamb S. The pathways from school to further study and work for Australian graduates (Research Report No. 19) 2001, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia.
51. Linke R., Barton A., Cannon R. Deferment of entry into higher education 1985, Tertiary Education Authority, Adelaide, Australia.
52. Locke E.A., Latham G.P. A theory of goal setting and task performance 1990, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
53. Locke E.A., Latham G.P. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist 2002, 57:705-717.
54. Marsh H.W. Self-concept theory, measurement and research into practice: The role of self-concept in educational psychology 2007, British Psychological Society, Leicester, England.
55. Marsh H.W., Balla J.R., Hau K.T. An evaluation of incremental fit indices: A clarification of mathematical and empirical processes. Advanced structural equation modeling techniques 1996, 315-353. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. G.A. Marcoulides, R.E. Schumacker (Eds.).
56. Marsh H.W., Martin A.J., Debus R. Individual differences in verbal and math self-perceptions: One factor, two factors, or does it depend on the construct?. International perspectives on individual differences 2001, Greenwood, London, England. R. Riding, S. Rayner (Eds.).
57. Martens M.P., Haase R.F. Advanced applications of structural equation modeling in counseling psychology research. The Counseling Psychologist 2006, 34:878-911.
58. Martin A.J. The Student Motivation Scale: A tool for measuring and enhancing motivation. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 2001, 11:1-20.
59. Martin A.J. The Student Motivation Scale: Further testing of an instrument that measures school students' motivation. Australian Journal of Education 2003, 47:88-106.
60. Martin A.J. School motivation of boys and girls: Differences of degree, differences of kind, or both?. Australian Journal of Psychology 2004, 56:133-146.
61. Martin A.J. Exploring the effects of a youth enrichment program on academic motivation and engagement. Social Psychology of Education 2005, 8:179-206.
62. Martin A.J. How to help your child fly through life: The 20 big issues 2005, Bantam, Sydney, Australia.
63. Martin A.J. Personal bests (PBs): A proposed multidimensional model and empirical analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology 2006, 76:803-825.
64. Martin A.J. Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology 2007, 77:413-440.
65. Martin A.J. Enhancing student motivation and engagement: The effects of a multidimensional intervention. Contemporary Educational Psychology 2008, 33:239-269.
66. Martin A.J. Motivation and engagement in diverse performance domains: Testing their generality across school, university/college, work, sport, music, and daily life. Journal of Research in Personality 2008, 42:1607-1612.
67. Martin A.J. Age appropriateness and motivation, engagement, and performance in high school: Effects of age-within-cohort, grade retention, and delayed school entry. Journal of Educational Psychology 2009, 101:101-114.
68. Martin A.J. Motivation and engagement across the academic lifespan: A developmental construct validity study of elementary school, high school, and university/college students. Educational and Psychological Measurement 2009, 69:794-824.
69. Martin A.J. The Motivation and Engagement Scale 2009, Lifelong Achievement Group, Sydney, Australia.
70. Martin A.J., Dowson M. Interpersonal relationships, motivation, engagement, and achievement: Yields for theory, current issues, and practice. Review of Educational Research 2009, 79:327-365.
71. Martin A.J., Marsh H.W., Debus R.L. A quadripolar need achievement representation of self-handicapping and defensive pessimism. American Educational Research Journal 2001, 38:583-610.
72. Martin A.J., Marsh H.W., Debus R.L. Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: Exploring a model of predictors and outcomes from a self-protection perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology 2001, 93:87-102.
73. Martin A.J., Marsh H.W., Debus R.L. Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: A model of self-protection from a longitudinal perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology 2003, 28:1-36.
74. Martin A.J., Marsh H.W., McInerney D.M., Green J. Young people's interpersonal relationships and academic and non-academic outcomes: The relative salience of teachers, parents, same-sex peers, and opposite-sex peers. Teachers College Record 2009, March 23, Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org.
75. Martin A.J., Marsh H.W., McInerney D.M., Green J., Dowson M. Getting along with teachers and parents: The yields of good relationships for students' achievement motivation and self-esteem. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 2007, 17:109-125.
76. Marzano R. What works in schools 2003, ASCD, Alexandria, VA.
77. McDonald R.P., Marsh H.W. Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness-of-fit. Psychological Bulletin 1990, 107:247-255.
78. Miller S.M., Shoda Y., Hurley K. Applying cognitive-social theory to health-protective behavior: Breast self-examination in cancer screening. Psychological Bulletin 1996, 119:70-94.
79. Murphy P.K., Alexander P.A. A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology 2000, 25:3-53.
80. Muthén B.O. Multilevel factor analysis of class and student achievement components. Journal of Educational Measurement 1991, 28:338-354.
81. Muthén B.O. Multilevel covariance structure analysis. Sociological Methods and Research 1994, 22:376-398.
82. Noy C. The trip really changed me: Backpackers' narratives of self-change. Annals of Tourism Research 2004, 31:78-102.
83. Orbell S., Hodgkins S., Sheeran P. Implementation intentions and the theory of planned behavior. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin 1997, 23:945-954.
84. O'Reilly C. Tourist or traveler? Narrating backpacker identity. Discourse, communication and tourism: Representations of hosts, tourists and destinations 2005, 150-169. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, England. A. Jaworski, A. Pritchard (Eds.).
85. O'Reilly C. From drifter to gap year tourist: Mainstreaming backpacker travel. Annals of Tourism Research 2006, 33:998-1017.
86. Pieters R.G.M., Verplanken B. Intention-behavior consistency: Effects of consideration set size, involvement and need for cognition. European Journal of Social Psychology 1995, 25:531-543.
87. Pintrich P.R. A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology 2003, 95:667-686.
88. Pintrich P.R. Motivation and classroom learning. Handbook of psychology: Educational psychology 2003, 103-122. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. W.M. Reynolds, G.E. Miller (Eds.).
89. Pintrich P.R., Schunk D.H. Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications 2002, Prentice Hall Merrill, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 2nd ed.
90. Power S., Edwards T., Whitty G., Wigfall V. Education and the middle classes 2003, Open University Press, Buckingham, England.
91. Raymond E.M., Hall C.M. The development of cross-cultural (mis)understanding through volunteer tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 2008, 16:530-543.
92. Reay D., David M., Ball S. Degrees of choice: Social class, race and gender in higher education 2005, Trentham Books, Stoke-on-Trent, England.
93. Roeser R., Eccles J.S., Sameroff A.J. School as a context of early adolescents' academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. Elementary School Journal 2000, 100:443-471.
94. Saris W.E., Satorra A., Sörbom D. The detection and correction of specification errors in structural equation models. Sociological methodology 1987, 105-129. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. C.C. Clogg (Ed.).
95. Schumacker R.E., Lomax R.G. A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling 1996, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
96. Schunk D.H. Introduction to the special section on motivation and efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology 1990, 82:3-6.
97. Sheeran P. Intention-behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review. European Review of Social Psychology 2002, 12:1-36.
98. Simpson K. Doing development: The gap year, volunteer-tourists and a popular practice of development. Journal of International Development 2004, 16:681-692.
99. Simpson K. Dropping out or signing up? The professionalisation of youth travel. Antipode 2005, 447-469.
100. Sutton S. Predicting and explaining intentions and behavior: How well are we doing?. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1998, 28:1317-1338.
101. Wearing S. Volunteer tourism: Experiences that make a difference 2001, CABI, Wallingford, England.
102. Weaving A. What happens to deferring students at the University of New South Wales?. Vestes 1978, 21:31-33.
103. Wigfield A., Tonks S. Adolescents' expectancies for success and achievement task values during middle and high school years. Academic motivation of adolescents 2002, 53-82. Information Age, Greenwich, CT. F. Pajares, T. Urdan (Eds.).
104. Wilkinson G.A. Wide Range Achievement Test 1993, Wide Range, Wilmington, DE.