Dietary sodium in chronic kidney disease: A comprehensive approach

Seminars in Dialysis

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 415-421

  Wright, Julie A ^a   Cavanaugh, Kerri L ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

SODIUM;

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; DISEASE COURSE; DOSE RESPONSE; HUMAN; METABOLISM; PATIENT EDUCATION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTOR; SODIUM INTAKE; SODIUM RESTRICTION;

ANIMALS; DIET, SODIUM-RESTRICTED; DISEASE PROGRESSION; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; HUMANS; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; PATIENT EDUCATION AS TOPIC; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTORS; SODIUM; SODIUM, DIETARY;

EID: 77955247475     PISSN: 08940959     EISSN: 1525139X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-139X.2010.00752.x     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005 2005, 6th edn, Washington, DC, Government Printing Office
2. Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride and Sulfate 2004, Washington, D.C., National Academy Press
3. Nutrient Intakes from Food: Mean Amounts Consumed per Individual, One Day http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/fsrg, 2005-2006. Available at, accessed January 10, 2010
4. Vennegoor MA. Salt restriction and practical aspects to improve compliance. J Ren Nutr 2009, 19:63-68.
5. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. BMJ 1988, 297:319-328.
6. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kopple JD, Deepak S, Block D, Block G. Food intake characteristics of hemodialysis patients as obtained by food frequency questionnaire. J Ren Nutr 2002, 12:17-31.
7. Aviv A. Salt and hypertension: the debate that begs the bigger question. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161:507-510.
8. Weir MR. Is it the low-protein diet or simply the salt restriction? Kidney Int 2007, 71:188-190.
9. Weir MR, Fink JC. Salt intake and progression of chronic kidney disease: an overlooked modifiable exposure? A commentary. Am J Kidney Dis 2005, 45:176-188.
10. Campese VM, Romoff MS, Levitan D, Saglikes Y, Friedler RM, Massry SG. Abnormal relationship between sodium intake and sympathetic nervous system activity in salt-sensitive patients with essential hypertension. Kidney Int 1982, 21:371-378.
11. Wilcox C. Dietary salt intake for patients with hypertension or kidney disease. Handbook of Nutrition and the Kidney 2009, 233-242. Mitch WEIkizler TA. ds, 6th edn, Philadelphia, PA, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
12. Ritz E, Mehls O. Salt restriction in kidney disease-a missed therapeutic opportunity? Pediatr Nephrol 2009, 24:9-17.
13. Kitiyakara C, Chabrashvili T, Chen Y, Blau J, Karber A, Aslam S, Welch WJ, Wilcox CS. Salt intake, oxidative stress, and renal expression of NADPH oxidase and superoxide dismutase. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003, 14:2775-2782.
14. Sanders PW. Dietary salt intake, salt sensitivity, and cardiovascular health. Hypertension 2009, 53:442-445.
15. Aizman O, Uhlen P, Lal M, Brismar H, Aperia A. Ouabain, a steroid hormone that signals with slow calcium oscillations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98:13420-13424.
16. Aperia A. New roles for an old enzyme: Na,K-ATPase emerges as an interesting drug target. J Intern Med 2007, 261:44-52.
17. Sun Z, Andersson R. NF-kappaB activation and inhibition: a review. Shock 2002, 18:99-106.
18. Blaustein M. Endogenous ouabain: role in pathogenesis of hypertension. Kidney Int 1996, 49:1748-1753.
19. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A, Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, Goldman L. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2010, 362:590-599.
20. Lowe LP, Greenland P, Ruth KJ, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Stamler J. Impact of major cardiovascular disease risk factors, particularly in combination, on 22-year mortality in women and men. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:2007-2014.
21. Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women. JAMA 2009, 302:401-411.
22. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, Obarzanek E, Conlin PR, Miller ER, Simons-Morton DG, Karanja N, Lin PH. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:3-10.
23. Verhave JC, Hillege HL, Burgerhof JG, Janssen WM, Gansevoort RT, Navis GJ, de Zeeuw D, de Jong PE. Sodium intake affects urinary albumin excretion especially in overweight subjects. For the Prevend Study Group. J Intern Med 2004, 256:324-330.
24. Heeg JE, de Jong PE, van der Hem GK, de Zeeuw D. Efficacy and variability of the antiproteinuric effect of ACE inhibition by lisinopril. Kidney Int 1989, 36:272-279.
25. Ekinci EI, Thomas G, Thomas D, Johnson C, Macisaac RJ, Houlihan CA, Finch S, Panagiotopoulos S, O'Callaghan C, Jerums G. Effects of salt supplementation on the albuminuric response to telmisartan with or without hydrochlorothiazide therapy in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes are modulated by habitual dietary salt intake. Diabetes Care 2009, 32:1398-1403.
26. Haroun MK, Jaar BG, Hoffman SC, Comstock GW, Klag MJ, Coresh J. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease: a prospective study of 23,534 men and women in Washington County, Maryland. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003, 14:2934-2941.
27. Raimann J, Liu L, Tyagi S, Levin NW, Kotanko P. A fresh look at dry weight. Hemodial Int 2008, 12:395-405.
28. Scribner BH, Buri R, Caner JE, Hegstrom R, Burnell JM. The treatment of chronic uremia by means of intermittent hemodialysis: a preliminary report. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 1960, 6:114-122.
29. Charra B, Calemard E, Cuche M, Laurent G. Control of hypertension and prolonged survival on maintenance hemodialysis. Nephron 1983, 33:96-99.
30. Ozkahya M, Ok E, Toz H, Asci G, Duman S, Basci A, Kose T, Dorhout Mees EJ. Long-term survival rates in haemodialysis patients treated with strict volume control. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006, 21:3506-3513.
31. Kayikcioglu M, Tumuklu M, Ozkahya M, Ozdogan O, Asci G, Duman S, Toz H, Can LH, Basci A, Ok E. The benefit of salt restriction in the treatment of end-stage renal disease by haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009, 24:956-962.
32. Van Biesen W, Vanholder R, Veys N, Lameire N. Improving salt balance in peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 2005, 25(Suppl. 3):S73-S75.
33. Tzamaloukas AH, Raj DS, Onime A, Servilla KS, Vanderjagt DJ, Murata GH. The prescription of peritoneal dialysis. Semin Dial 2008, 21:250-257.
34. Chen W, Cheng LT, Wang T. Salt and fluid intake in the development of hypertension in peritoneal dialysis patients. Ren Fail 2007, 29:427-432.
35. Keven K, Yalcin S, Canbakan B, Kutlay S, Sengul S, Erturk S, Erbay B. The impact of daily sodium intake on posttransplant hypertension in kidney allograft recipients. Transplant Proc 2006, 38:1323-1326.
36. Helderman JH, Schaefer H, Langone AJ, Goral S. Homeostasis of solute and water by the transplanted kidney. Seldin and Giebisch's The Kidney Physiology and Pathophysiology 2008, 2737-2761. Alpern RJ, Hebert SC, eds, 4th edn, New York, Elsevier Academic Press
37. McCarron DA, Geerling JC, Kazaks AG, Stern JS. Can dietary sodium intake be modified by public policy? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009, 4:1878-1882.
38. Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, Marmot M. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. BMJ 1996, 312:1249-1253.
39. Cohen HW, Hailpern SM, Alderman MH. Sodium intake and mortality follow-up in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Gen Intern Med 2008, 23:1297-1302.
40. Reducing Salt Intake in Populations: Report of a WHO Forum and Technical Meeting 5-7 October 2006 2007, Paris, France, Geneva, WHO Press
41. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation 2006, 114:82-96.
42. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2004, 43:S1-S290.
43. KDOQI clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for 2006 updates: hemodialysis adequacy, peritoneal dialysis adequacy and vascular access. Am J Kidney Dis 2006, 48:S1-S322.
44. Kollipara UK, Jaffer O, Amin A, Toto KH, Nelson LL, Schneider R, Markham D, Drazner MH. Relation of lack of knowledge about dietary sodium to hospital readmission in patients with heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2008, 102:1212-1215.
45. Heidrich FE, Bergman JJ. Physician knowledge of sodium content of common foods. J Fam Pract 1982, 14:693-697.
46. Sheahan SL, Fields B. Sodium dietary restriction, knowledge, beliefs, and decision-making behavior of older females. J Am Acad Nurse Pract 2008, 20:217-224.
47. James WP, Ralph A, Sanchez-Castillo CP. The dominance of salt in manufactured food in the sodium intake of affluent societies. Lancet 1987, 1:426-429.
48. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT, Roccella EJ. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003, 289:2560-2572.
49. Rothman RL, Housam R, Weiss H, Davis D, Gregory R, Gebretsadik T, Shintani A, Elasy TA. Patient understanding of food labels: the role of literacy and numeracy. Am J Prev Med 2006, 31:391-398.
50. Havas S, Dickinson BD, Wilson M. The urgent need to reduce sodium consumption. JAMA 2007, 298:1439-1441.
51. Fernstrom A, Hylander B, Rossner S. Taste acuity in patients with chronic renal failure. Clin Nephrol 1996, 45:169-174.
52. Huggins RL, Di Nicolantonio R, Morgan TO. Preferred salt levels and salt taste acuity in human subjects after ingestion of untasted salt. Appetite 1992, 18:111-119.
53. Kusaba T, Mori Y, Masami O, Hiroko N, Adachi T, Sugishita C, Sonomura K, Kimura T, Kishimoto N, Nakagawa H, Okigaki M, Hatta T, Matsubara H. Sodium restriction improves the gustatory threshold for salty taste in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2009, 76:638-643.
54. Mattes RD. The taste for salt in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1997, 65:692S-697S.
55. Smith K, Coston M, Glock K, Elasy TA, Wallston KA, Ikizler TA, Cavanaugh KL. Patient perspectives on fluid management in chronic hemodialysis. J Ren Nutr 2009, [Epub ahead of print]
56. http://www.cms.hhs.gov/transmittals/downloads/R1876CP.pdf, Pub 100-04 Medicare Claims Processing, pp. 1-16. Available at, accessed on January 25, 2010
57. Sodium and Your CKD Diet: How to Spice Up Your Cooking http://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/sodiumckd.cfm, Available at, accessed November 3, 2009
58. Nutrition for Everyone. Health Facts Sodium and Potassium http://www.cdc.gov/salt/, Your online source for credible health information, Available at, accessed January 25, 2010
59. Brochures: AAKP Nutrition Counter: A Reference for the Kidney Patient http://www.aakp.org/brochures/nutrition-counter/, Available at, accessed January 25, 2010
60. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl, Available at, accessed January 1, 2010
61. Nutrition Facts for Popular Menu Items http://nutrition.mcdonalds.com/nutritionexchange/nutritionfacts.pdf, Available at, accessed November 6, 2009