The role of toxin A and toxin B in Clostridium difficile-associated disease: Past and present perspectives

Gut Microbes

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 58-64

  Carter, Glen P ^a   Rood, Julian I ^a   Lyras, Dena ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Antibiotic; Clostridium difficile; Colitis; Infection; Nosocomial; Toxin

Indexed keywords

CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE TOXIN A; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE TOXIN B;

ARTICLE; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BACTERIUM ISOLATE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; HUMAN; INTESTINE MUCOSA; NONHUMAN; REAL TIME POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; TOXIN STRUCTURE;

ANIMALIA; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CRICETINAE;

EID: 77954848009     PISSN: 19490976     EISSN: 19490984     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4161/gmic.1.1.10768     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, Owens RC, Kazakova SV, Sambol SP, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. NEJM 2005; 353:2433-41.
2. Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, Killgore G, Thompson A, Brazier J, et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005; 366:1079-84.
3. Bartlett JG, Moon N, Chang TW, Taylor N, Onderdonk AB. Role of Clostridium difficile in antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Gastroenterology 1978; 75:778-82.
4. Bartlett JG. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. The New England Journal of Medicine 2002; 346:334-9.
5. Redelings MD, Sorvillo F, Mascola L. Increase in Clostridium difficile-related mortality rates, United States, 1999-2004. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2007; 13:1417-9.
6. O'Brien JA, Lahue BJ, Caro JJ, Davidson DM. The emerging infectious challenge of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Massachusetts hospitals: Clinical and economic consequences. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007; 28:1219-27.
7. Voth DE, Ballard JD. Clostridium difficile toxins: mechanism of action and role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18:247-63.
8. Dupuy B, Raffestin S, Matamouros S, Mani N, Popoff MR, Sonenshein AL. Regulation of toxin and bacteriocin gene expression in Clostridium by interchangeable RNA polymerase sigma factors. Mol Microbiol 2006; 60:1044-57.
9. Dupuy B, Govind R, Antunes A, Matamouros S. Clostridium difficile toxin synthesis is negatively regulated by TcdC. J Med Microbiol 2008; 57:685-9.
10. Tan KS, Wee BY, Song KP. Evidence for holin function of tcdE gene in the pathogenicity of Clostridium difficile. J Med Microbiol 2001; 50:613-9.
11. Hamm EE, Voth DE, Ballard JD. Identification of Clostridium difficile toxin B cardiotoxicity using a zebrafish embryo model of intoxication. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103:14176-81.
12. Lyerly DM, Saum KE, MacDonald DK, D WT. Effects of Clostridium difficile toxins given intragastrically to animals. Infect Immun 1985; 47:349-52.
13. Voth DE, Martinez OV, Ballard JD. Variations in lethal toxin and cholesterol-dependent cytolysin production correspond to differences in cytotoxicity among strains of Clostridium sordellii. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2006; 259:295-302.
14. Busch C, Schömig K, Hofmann F, Aktories K. Characterization of the catalytic domain of Clostridium novyi alpha-toxin. Infect Immun 2000; 68:6378-83.
15. Amimoto K, Noro T, Oishi E, Shimizu M. A novel toxin homologous to large clostridial cytotoxins found in culture supernatant of Clostridium perfringens type C. Microbiology 2007; 153:1198-206.
16. Jank T, Aktories K. Structure and mode of action of clostridial glucosylating toxins: the ABCD model. Trends Microbiol 2008; 16:222-9.
17. Just I, Gerhard R. Large clostridial cytotoxins. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 152:23-47.
18. O'Connor JR, Lyras D, Farrow KA, Adams V, Powell DR, Hinds J, et al. Construction and analysis of chromosomal Clostridium difficile mutants. Mol Microbiol 2006; 61:1335-51.
19. Heap JT, Pennington OJ, Cartman ST, Carter GP, NP M. The ClosTron: a universal gene knock-out system for the genus Clostridium. J Microbiol Methods 2007; 70:452-64.
20. Lyras D, O'Connor JR, Howarth PK, Sambol SP, Carter GP, Phumoonna T, et al. Toxin B is essential for virulence of Clostridium difficile. Nature 2009; 458:1176-9.
21. Drudy D, Fanning S, Kyne L. Toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive Clostridium difficile. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2007; 11:5-10.
22. Savidge TC, Pan WH, Newman P, O'Brien M, Anton PM, Pothoulakis C. Clostridium difficile toxin B is an inflammatory enterotoxin in human intestine. Gastroenterology 2003; 125:413-20.
23. Riegler M, Sedivy R, Pothoulakis C, Hamilton G, Zacherl J, Bischof G, et al. Clostridium difficile toxin B is more potent than toxin A in damaging human colonic epithelium in vitro. J Clin Invest 1995; 95:2004-11.
24. Rolfe RD. Binding kinetics of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B to intestinal brush border membranes from infant and adult hamsters. Infect Immun 1991; 59:1223-30.
25. Eglow R, Pothoulakis C, Itzkowitz S, Israel EJ, O'Keane CJ, Gong D, et al. Diminished Clostridium difficile toxin A sensitivity in newborn rabbit ileum is associated with decreased toxin A receptor. J Clin Invest 1992; 90:822-9.
26. Egerer M, Giesemann T, Jank T, Satchell KJ, Aktories K. Auto-catalytic cleavage of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B depends on cysteine protease activity. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:25314-21.
27. Reineke J, Tenzer S, Rupnik M, Koschinski A, Hasselmayer O, Schrattenholz A, et al. Autocatalytic cleavage of Clostridium difficile toxin B. Nature 2007; 446:415-9.
28. Stubbe H, Berdoz J, Kraehenbuhl JP, Corthesy B. Polymeric IgA is superior to monomeric IgA and IgG carrying the same variable domain in preventing Clostridium difficile toxin A damaging of T84 monolayers. J Immunol 2000; 164:1952-60.
29. Kurtz CB, Cannon EP, Brezzani A, Pitruzzello M, Dinardo C, Rinard E, et al. GT160-246, a toxin binding polymer for treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:2340-7.
30. Razaq N, Sambol S, Nagaro K, Zukowski W, Cheknis A, Johnson S, N GD. Infection of hamsters with historical and epidemic BI types of Clostridium difficile. J Infect Dis 2007; 196:1813-9.
31. Goncalves C, Decre D, Barbut F, Burghoffer B, Petit JC. Prevalence and characterization of a binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase) from Clostridium difficile. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:1933-9.
32. Geric B, Carman RJ, Rupnik M, Genheimer CW, Sambol SP, Lyerly DM, et al. Binary toxin-producing, large clostridial toxin-negative Clostridium difficile strains are enterotoxic but do not cause disease in hamsters. J Infect Dis 2006; 193:1143-50.
33. Jhung MA, Thompson AD, Killgore GE, Zukowski WE, Songer G, Warny M, et al. Toxinotype V Clostridium difficile in humans and food animals. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1039-45.
34. Rupnik M, Avesani V, Janc M, von Eichel-Streiber C, Delmee M. A novel toxinotyping scheme and correlation of toxinotypes with serogroups of Clostridium difficile isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:2240-7.
35. Geric B, Rupnik M, Gerding DN, Grabnar M, Johnson S. Distribution of Clostridium difficile variant toxinotypes and strains with binary toxin genes among clinical isolates in an American hospital. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53:887-94.
36. Stabler RA, Dawson LF, Phua LT, Wren BW. Comparative analysis of BI/NAP1/027 hypervirulent strains reveals novel toxin B-encoding gene (tcdB) sequences. J Med Microbiol 2008; 57:771-5.
37. Stabler RA, He M, Dawson L, Martin M, Valiente E, Corton C, et al. Comparative genome and phenotypic analysis of Clostridium difficile 027 strains provides insight into the evolution of a hypervirulent bacterium. Genome Biol 2009; 10:102.
38. Rupnik M. Heterogeneity of large clostridial toxins: importance of Clostridium difficile toxinotypes. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2008; 32:541-55.
39. Soehn F, Wagenknecht-Wiesner A, Leukel P, Kohl M, Weidmann M, von Eichel-Streiber C, Braun V. Genetic rearrangements in the pathogenicity locus of Clostridium difficile strain 8864-implications for transcription, expression and enzymatic activity of toxins A and B. Mol Gen Genet 1998; 258:222-32.
40. Lyerly DM, Barroso LA, Wilkins TD, Depitre C, Corthier G. Characterization of a toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive strain of Clostridium difficile. Infect Immun 1992; 60:4633-9.
41. Sambol SP, Tang JK, Merrigan MM, Johnson S, Gerding DN. Infection of hamsters with epidemiologically important strains of Clostridium difficile. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2001; 183:1760-6.
42. Songer JG, Anderson MA. Clostridium difficile: an important pathogen of food animals. Anaerobe 2006; 12:1-4.
43. Weiss K. Toxin-binding treatment for Clostridium difficile: a review including reports of studies with tolevamer. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009; 33:4-7.
44. Castagliuolo I, LaMont JT, Qiu B, Nikulasson ST, Pothoulakis C. A receptor decoy inhibits the enterotoxic effects of Clostridium difficile toxin A in rat ileum. Gastroenterology 1996; 111:433-8.