Common soil of smoking-associated and hormone-related cancers: Estrogen deficiency

Oncology Reviews

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 73-87

  Suba, Zsuzsanna ^a  

^a SEMMELWEIS UNIVERSITY   (Hungary)

Author keywords

Breast cancer; Cancer risk; Estrogen deficiency; Hormone replacement therapy; Oral cancer

Indexed keywords

8 HYDROXYGUANINE; AROMATASE INHIBITOR; ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR; GROWTH HORMONE; INSULIN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE;

ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; BLADDER CANCER; BREAST CANCER; CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER IMMUNIZATION; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER RESEARCH; CANCER RISK; CARCINOGENESIS; CARCINOGENICITY; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; COVALENT BOND; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DNA DAMAGE; ENDOMETRIUM CARCINOMA; EPIGENETICS; ESTROGEN BLOOD LEVEL; ESTROGEN DEFICIENCY; ESTROGEN SYNTHESIS; ESTROGEN THERAPY; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FEMALE INFERTILITY; GENE CONTROL; HORMONE DEPENDENCE; HORMONE RESPONSE; HORMONE RESPONSIVE ELEMENT; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERINSULINEMIA; HYSTERECTOMY; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INSULIN BLOOD LEVEL; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LARYNX CANCER; LUNG CANCER; MENSTRUAL IRREGULARITY; MIDDLE AGED; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; MOUTH CANCER; ORAL CONTRACEPTION; OVARY INSUFFICIENCY; OVARY POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTMENOPAUSE; PREMENOPAUSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING; TUMOR PROMOTION;

EID: 77954564373     PISSN: 19705557     EISSN: 19705565     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12156-010-0036-1     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Suba Zs (2007) Gender-related hormonal risk factors for oral cancer. Pathol Oncol Res 13:195-202
2. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007) Robbins basic pathology, 8th edn. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia
3. Montag A, Kumar V (2007) The female genital system and breast. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (eds) Robbins basic pathology, Chap 19, 8th edn. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia
4. Muti P, Quattrin T, Grant BJB et al (2002) Fasting glucose is a risk factor for breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:1361-1368
5. Soliman PT, Oh JC, Schmeler KM, Sun CC, Slomovitz BM, Gershenson DM, Burke TW, Lu KH (2005) Risk factors for young premenopausal women with endometrial cancer. Obstet Gynecol 105:575-580
6. Suba Zs (2009) Re-evaluation of the epidemiological associations of female sexual steroids and cancer risk. In: Estrogen versus cancer, chap 6. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York
7. Suba Zs (2009) Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and cancer risk. Chapter 2. In: Estrogen versus cancer. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
8. American Institute for Cancer Research/World Cancer Research Fund (2002) Food, nutrition and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. American Institute of Cancer Research, Washington, DC, pp 252-287
9. Key TJ, Applyby PN, Reeves GK (2003) Body mass index, serum sex hormones and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:1218-1226
10. Berrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, Bolelli G, Krogh V, Sciajno R et al (1996) Serum sex hormon levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 88:291-296
11. Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, Neriishi K, Land CE (2000) A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9:575-579
12. La Vecchia C, Brinton LA, McTiernan A (2001) Menopause, hormone replacement therapy and cancer. Maturitas 39:97-115 (Pubitemid 32769903)
13. Brekelmans CT (2003) Risk factors and risk reduction of breast and ovarian cancer. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 15:63-68
14. Bloomgarden ZT (2005) Second World Congress on the insulin resistance syndrome: mediators, pediatric insulin resistance, the polycystic ovary syndrome, and malignancy. Diabetes Care 28:1821-1830
15. Greenle RT, Murray T, Bolden S, Wongo PA (2000) Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 50:7-33
16. Weiderpass E, Gridley G, Persson I et al (1997) Risk of endo-metrial and breast cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus. Int J Cancer 71:360-363
17. Horn LC, Dietel M, Einenkel J (2005) Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and endometrial morphology under consideration of the different molecular pathways in endometrial carcino-genesis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 122:4-12
18. Ito K, Utsunomiya H, Yaegashi N, Sasano H (2007) Biological roles of estrogen and progesterone in human endometrial carcinoma-new developments in potential endocrine therapy for endometrial cancer. Endocrine J 54:667-679
19. Lax SF, Kendall B, Tashiro H, Slebos RJC, Hedrick L (2000) Analysis of p53 and K-ras mutations and microsatellite instability suggests distinct molecular genetic pathways in the path-ogenesis of uterine endometrioid and serous carcinoma. Cancer 88:814-824
20. WHO Classification on Pathology and Genetics (2003) In: Tavassoli FA, Devile P (eds) Tumours of the breast and female genital organs. WHO Publications, Geneva
21. Varras M, Polyzos D, Akviris C (2003) Effects of tamoxifen on the human female genital tract: Review of the literature. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 24:258-268
22. Dietel M, Lewis MA, Shapiro S (2005) Hormone replacement therapy: pathobiological aspects of hormone-sensitive cancers in women relevant to epidemiological studies on HRT: a mini-review. Human Reprod 20:2052-2060
23. Bosetti C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Pelucchi C, Talamini R, Montella M, Conti E, La Vecchia C (2001) Diet and ovarian cancer risk: a case-control study in Italy. Int J Cancer 93:911-915 (Pubitemid 32756764)
24. Highman B, Greenman DL, Norvell MJ, Farmer J, Shellenber-ger TE (1980) Neoplastic and preneoplastic lesions induced in female C3H mice by diets containing diethylstilbestrol or 17/+-estradiol. J Environ Pathol Toxicol 4:81-95
25. Huseby RA (1980) Demonstration of a direct carcinogenic effect of estradiol on Leydig cells of the mouse. Cancer Res 40:10061013
26. Nagasawa H, Mori T, Nakajima Y (1980) Long-term effects of progesterone or diethylstilbestrol with or without estrogen after maturity on mammary tumorigenesis in mice. Eur J Cancer 16:1583-1589
27. Noble RL, Hochacka BC, King D (1975) Spontaneous and estrogen-produced tumors in Nb rats and behaviour after transplantation. Cancer Res 35:766-780
28. Shull JD, Spady TJ, Snyder MC, Johansson SL, Pennington KL (1997) Ovary intact, but not ovariectomized female ACI rats treated with 17/+-estradiol rapidly develop mammary carcinoma. Carcinogenesis 18:1595-1601
29. Li JJ, Li SA (1984) Estrogen-induced tumorigenesis in hamsters: roles for hormonal and carcinogenic activities. Arch Toxicol 55:110-118
30. Liehr JG, Fang WF, Sirbasku DA, Ari-Ulubelen A (1986) Carcinogenicty of catechol estrogens in Syrian hamsters. J Steroid Biochem 24:353-356
31. Deguchi J, Miyamoto M, Okada S (1995) Sex hormone-dependent renal cell carcinogenesis induced by ferric nitrilotri-acetate in Wistar rats. Jpn J Cancer Res 86:1068-1071
32. Dobos J, Timar J, Bocsi J, Zs Burian, Nagy K, Barna G, Petak I, Ladanyi A (2004) In vitro and in vivo antitumor effect of 2-methoxyestradiol on human melanoma. IntJ Cancer 112:771-776
33. Ames BN, Shigenaga MK, Gold LS (1993) DNA lesions, inducible DNA repair, and cell division: three key factors in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 101:35-44
34. Dickson RB, Gelmann EP, Knabbe C, Jasid K, Bates S, Swain S (1987) Mechanisms of estrogenic and antiestrogenic regulation of growth of human breast carcinoma. In: Klijn JGM (ed) Hormonal manipulation of cancer: peptides, growth factors, and new (anti) steroidal agents. Raven Press, New York, pp 381-1-03
35. Katzenellenbogen BS (1996) Estrogen receptors: bioactivity and interactions with cell signaling pathways. Biol Reprod 54:287-293
36. Liehr JG, Sirbasku DA, Jurka E, Randerath K, Randerath E (1988) Inhibition of estrogen-induced renal carcinogenesis in male Syrian hamsters by Tamoxifen without decrease in DNA adduct levels. Cancer Res 48:779-783
37. Li JJ, Li SA (1990) Estrogen carcinogenesis in hamster tissues: a critical review. Endocr Rev 11:524-531
38. Nandi S (1978) Role of hormones in mammary neoplasia. Cancer Res 38:4046-4049
39. Hill A, Wolff S (1983) Sister chromatid exchanges and cell division delays induced by diethylstilbestrol, estradiol and estriol in human lymphocytes. Cancer Res 43:4114-U18
40. Feigelson HS, Henderson BE (1996) Estrogens and breast cancer. Carcinogenesis 17:2279-2284
41. Clark RB, Howell A, Potten CS, Anderson E (1997) Dissociation between steroid receptor expression and cell proliferation in human breast. Cancer Res 57:4987-4991
42. Ashburn SP, Han X, Liehr JG (1993) Microsomal hydroxylation of 2-and 4-fluorestradiol to catechol metabolites and their conversion to methyl ethers: catechol estrogens as possible mediators of hormonal carcinogenesis. Mol Pharmacol 43:534-541
43. Ursin G, London S, Stanczyk FZ, Gentzschein E, Paganini Hill A, Ross RK, Pike MC (1999) Urinary 2-hydroxyestrone/16a-hydroxyestrone ratio and risk of breast cancer in postmeno-pausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1067-1072
44. Tsutsui T, Barrett JC (1997) Neoplastic transformation of cultured mammalian cells by estrogens and estrogen-like chemicals. Environ Health Perspect 105(supp 3):619-624
45. Banerjee SK, Banerjee S, Li SA, Li JJ (1994) Induction of chromosome aberrations in Syrian hamster renal cortical cells by various estrogens. Mutat Res 311:191-197
46. Barrett JC, Wong A, McLachlan JA (1981) Diethylstilbestrol induces neoplastic transformation without measurable gene mutation at two loci. Science 212:1402-1404
47. Li JJ, Li SA (1996) Estrogen carcinogenesis in the hamster kidney: a hormone-driven multi-step process. In: Huff J, Boyd J, Barrett JC (eds) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of hormonal carcinogenesis: environmental influences. Wiley, Philadelphia, pp 255-267
48. Nutter LM, Ngo EO, Abul-Hajj YY (1991) Characterization of DNA damage induced by 3,4-estrone-O-quinone in human cells. J Biol Chem 226:16380-16386
49. Han X, Liehr JG (1994) DNA single strand breaks in kidneys of Syrian hamsters treated with steroidal estrogens. Hormone induced free radical damage preceding renal malignancy. Carcinogenesis 15:977-1000
50. Mobley JA, Bhat AS, Brueggemeier RW (1999) Measurement of oxidative DNA damage by catechol estogens and analogues in vitro. Chem Res Toxicol 12:270-277
51. Michos C, Kiortsis DN, Evangelou A, Karkabounas S (2006) Antioxidant protection during menstrual cycle: the effects estradiol on ascorbic- dehydroascorbic acid plasma levels and total antioxidant plasma status in eumenorrhoic women during menstrual cycle. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 85:960-965
52. Vina J, Sastre J, Pallardo FV, Gambini J, Borras C (2006) Role of mitochondrial oxidative stress to explain the different longevity between genders. Protective effect of estrogens. Free Radic Res 40:1359-1365
53. Bernstein L (1998) The epidemiology of breast cancer. LOWAC J 1:7-13
54. Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, Willett WC, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens C, Rosner B, Speizer FE (1995) The use of estrogens and progestins and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 332:1589-1593
55. Diamanti-Kandarakis E (2004) Hormone replacement therapy and risk of malignancy. Curr Opinion Obstet Gynecol 16:73-78
56. Garland CF, Friedlander NJ, Barrett-Conner E, Khaw KT (1992) Sex hormones and postmenopausal breast cancer: a prospective study in an adult community. Am J Epidemiol 135:1220-1230
57. Key TJA, Pike MC (1988) The dose-effect relationship between "unopposed"estrogens and endometrial mitotic rate: its central role in explaining and predicting endometrial cancer risk. Br J Cancer 57:205-212
58. Siiteri PK, Nisker JA, Hammond GL (1980) Hormonal basis of risk factors for breast and endometrial cancer. In: Iacobelli S, King RJB, Lindner HR, Lippman ME (eds) Hormones and cancer. Raven Press, New York, pp 499-505
59. Toniolo PG, Levitz M, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Banerjee S, Koenig KL, Shore RE, Strax P, Pasternack BS (1995) A prospective study of endogenous estrogens and breast cancer in post-menopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 86:1076-1082
60. Henderson BE, Ross RK, Pike MC (1993) Hormonal chemo-prevention of cancer in women. Science 259:633-638
61. Hulka BS, Liu ET, Lininger RA (1993) Steroid hormones and risk of breast cancer. Cancer 74:1111-1124
62. Pike M, Bernstein L, Spicer D (1993) Exogenous hormones and breast cancer risk. In: Neiderhuber J (ed) Current therapy in oncol. BC Decker, St. Louis, pp 292-302
63. Liehr JG (2000) Is estradiol a genotoxic and mutagenic carcinogen? Endocrine Rev 21:40-54
64. Cirisano FD, Robboy SJ, Dodge RK, Bentley RC, Krigman HR, Synan IS, Soper JT, Clarke Pearson DL (2000) The outcome of state I-II clinically and surgically staged papillary serous and clear cell endometrial cancers when compared with endometrial carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 77:55-65
65. Greenwald P, Caputo TA, Wolfgang PE (1977) Endometrial cancer after menopausal use of estrogens. Obstet Gynecol 50:239-243
66. MacMahon B (1974) Risk factors for endometrial cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2:122-129
67. Rodriguez C, Patel AV, Calle EE et al (2001) Estrogen replacement therapy and ovarian cancer mortality in a large prospective study of US women. JAMA 285:1460-1465
68. Negri E, Tzonou A, Beral V et al (1999) Hormonal therapy for menopause and ovarian cancer in a collaborative re-analysis of European studies. Int J Cancer 80:848-851
69. Lacey JV, Mink PJ, Lubin JH et al (2002) Menopausal hormone replacement therapy and risk of ovarian cancer. JAMA 288:334-341
70. International Agency for Research on Cancer (1999) Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: hormonal contraception an postmenopausal hormone therapy, vol 72. IARC, Lyon
71. Fernandez E, Gallus S, Bosetti C, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C (2003) Hormone replacement therapy and cancer risk: a systematic analysis from a network of case-control studies. Int J Cancer 105:408-412
72. Ettinger B, Friedman GD, Bush T, Quesenberry CP Jr (1996) Reduced mortality associated with long-term postmenopausal estrogen therapy. Obstet Gynecol 87:6-12
73. Grodstein F, Clarkson T, Manson J (2003) Understanding the divergent data on postmenopausal hormone therapy. N Engl J Med 348:645-650 (Pubitemid 36204960)
74. Gallus S, Bosetti C, Franceschi S, Levi F, Simonato L, Negri E, La Vecchia C (2001) Oesophageal cancer in women: tobacco, alcohol, nutritional and hormonal factors. Br J Cancer 85:341-345
75. Olsson H, Bladstrom AM, Ingvar C (2003) Are smoking-asso-ciated cancers prevented or postponed in women using hormone replacement therapy? Obstet Gynecol 102:565-570
76. Parazzini F, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Bolis G (1997) Case-control study of estrogen replacement therapy and risk of cervical cancer. Br Med J 315:85-88 (Pubitemid 27285440)
77. Rodriguez C, Feigelson HS, Deka A, Patel AV, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ, Calle EE (2008) Postmenopausal hormone therapy and lung cancer risk in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:655-660
78. Anderos GL, Judd HL, Kaunitz AM et al (2003) Women's Health Initiative Investigator Effects of estrogen plus progestin on gynaecologic cancers and associated diagnostic procedures: The Women's Health Initative randomised trial. JAMA 290:1739-1748
79. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, Bonds D, Brunner R, Brzyski R, Caan B, Chlebowski R, Curb D, Gass M, Hays J, Heiss G, Hendrix S, Howard BV, Hsia J, Hubbell A, Jackson R, Johnson KC, Judd H, Kotchen JM, Kuller L, LaCroix AZ, Lane D, Langer RD, Lasser N, Lewis CE, Manson J, Margolis K, Ockene J, O'Sullian MJ, Phillips L, Prentice RL, Ritenbaugh C, Robbins J, Rossouw JE, Sarto G, Stefanick ML, Van Horn L, Wactawski-Wende J, Wallace R, Wassertheil-Smoller S (2004) Women's Health Intitative Steering Committee. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterctomy: the Women's Health Intitative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291:1701-1712
80. Hartge P, Harvey EB, Linehan WJ, Silverman DT, Sullivan JW, Hoover RN, Fraumeni JF (1990) Unexplained excess risk of bladder cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 82:1636-1640
81. Cantwell MM, Lacey JV Jr, Schairer C, Schatzkin A, Michaud DS (2006) Reproductive factors, exogenous hormone use and bladder cancer risk in a prospective study. Int J Cancer 119:2398-2401
82. McGrath M, Michaud DS, De Vivo I (2006) Hormonal and reproductive factors and the risk of bladder cancer in women. Am J Epidemiol 163:236-244 (Pubitemid 43145751)
83. Gallus S, Bosetti C, Franceschi S, Levi F, Negri E, LaVecchia C (2003) Laryngeal cancer in women. Tobacco, alcohol, nutritional, and hormonal factors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12:512-517
84. Ganti AK, Sahmoun AE, Panwalkar AW, Tendulkar KK, Potti A (2006) Hormone replacement therapy is associated with decreased survival in women with lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 24:59-63
85. Kreuzer M, Gerken M, Heinrich J, Kreienbrock L, Wichmann HE (2003) Hormonal factors and risk of lung cancer among women? Int J Epidemiol 32:263-271 (Pubitemid 36622273)
86. La Vecchia C, D'Avanzo B, Franceschi S, Negri E, Parazzini F, Decarli A (1994) Menstrual and reproductive factors and gastric-cancer risk in women. Int J Cancer 59:761-764
87. Wysowski KK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, Lau HL (1987) Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development ofbreast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 125:791-799
88. Stefanick ML, Anderson GL, Margolis KL, Hendrix SL et al (2006) Effects of conjugated Equine estrogens on breast cancer and mammography screening in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy. JAMA 295:1647-1657
89. Hulley S, Grady D, Busch T et al (1998) Randomised trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women: heart and Estrogen/ Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA 380:605-613
90. Risch HA (2002) Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 86:115-117
91. Schapiro S (2007) False alarm: postmenopausal hormone therapy and ovarian cancer. Climacteric 10:466-470
92. Grady D (2003) Postmenopausal hormones-therapy for symptoms only. New Engl J Med 348:1-3
93. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer (1997) Collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52 705 women with breast cancer and 108 411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 350:1047-1059
94. Adami HO, Signorello LB, Trichopolos D (1998) Towards an understanding of breast cancer etiology. Semin Cancer Biol 8:255-262
95. Hofseth LJ, Raafat AM, Osuch JR, Pathak DR, Slomski CA, Haslam SZ (1999) Hormone replacement therapy with estrogen or estrogen plus medroxy-progesterone acetate is associated with increased epithelial proliferation in the normal postmeno-pausal breast. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:4559-4565
96. Li CI, Weiss NS, Stanford JL, Daling JR (2000) Hormone replacement therapy in relation to risk of lobular and ductal breast carcinoma in middle-aged women. Cancer 88:2570-2577
97. Wisemann RA (2000) Brest cancer hypothesis: a single cause for the majority of cases. J Epidemiol Community Health 54:851-858
98. Spratt JS, Meyer JS, Spratt JA (1995) Rates of growth of human solid neoplasms: part I. J Surg Oncol 60:137-146
99. Shackney SE, McCormack GW Jr, Cuchural GJ (1978) Growth rate patterns of solid tumors and their relation to responsiveness to therapy: an analytical review. Ann Intern Med 89:107-121
100. Spratt JS, Spratt JA (1985) What is breast cancer doing before we can detect it? J Surg Oncol 30:156-160
101. Haskell CM (1985) Thorax. Unknown primary-breast cancer in cancer treatment, 2nd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia
102. Anderson TJ, Battersby S, King RJB et al (1989) Oral contraceptive use influences resting breast proliferation. Hum Pathol 20:1139-1144
103. Suba Zs (2009) Estrogen deficiency as cancer risk factor, chap 5. In: Estrogen versus cancer. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
104. Suba Zs (2008) Systemic risk factors for oral cancer: estrogen deficiency and insulin resistance, chap 8. In: Nielsen FL (ed) Progress in oral cancer research. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp 157-172
105. Coulam CB, Annegers JF, Kranz JS (1983) Chronic anovulation syndrome and associated neoplasia. Obstet Gynecol 61:403-1-07
106. Hartge P (1997) Abortion, breast cancer and epidemiology. N Engl J Med 336:127-128
107. Pierpoint T, McKeigue PM, Isaacs AJ, Wild SH, Jacobs HS (1998) Mortality of women with polycystic ovary syndrome at long-term follow-up. J Clin Epidemiol 51:581-586
108. Gadducci A, Gargini A, Palla E, Fanucchi A, Genazzani AR (2005) Polycystic ovary syndrome and gynecological cancers: is there a link? Gynecol Endocrinol 20:200-208
109. Sartor BM, Dickey RP (2005) Polycystic ovarian syndrome and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Med 330:336-342
110. Spritzer PM, Morsch DM, Wiltgen D (2006) Polycystic ovary syndrome associated neoplasms. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 49:805-810
111. Nestler JE, Strauss JF (1991) Insulin as an effector of human ovarian and adrenal steroid metabolism. Endocrin Metab Clin North Am 20:807-823
112. Polson DW, Wadsworth J, Adams J et al (1988) Polycystic ovaries: a common finding in normal women. Lancet 1:870-872
113. Carmina E, Lobo RA (2001) Polycystic ovaries in hirsute women with normal menses. Am J Med 111:602-606
114. Farquhar CM, Birdsall M, Manning P et al (1994) The prevalence of polycystic ovaries on ultrasound scanning in a population of randomly selected women. Aust NZ Obstet Gynaecol 34:67-72
115. Llewellyn CD, Johnson NW, Warnakulasuriya KAAS (2001) Risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity in young people-a comprehensive literature review. Oral Oncol 37:401-418
116. Bjornstrom L, Sjoberg M (2005) Mechanisms of estrogen receptor signaling: convergence of genomic and nongenomic actions on target genes. Mol Endocrinol 19:833-842
117. Pillay OC, Te Fong LF, Crow JC, Benjamin E, Mould T, Ati-omo W, Menon PA, Leonard AJ, Hardiman P (2006) The association between polycystic ovaries and endometrial cancer. Human Reprod 21:924-929
118. Miller WR, O'Neill J (1987) The importance of local synthesis of estrogen within the breast. Steroids 50:537-548
119. Santen RJ, Martel J, Hoagland M, Naftolin F, Roa L, Harada N, Hafer L, Zaino R, Santner SJ (1994) Stromal spindle cells contain aromatase in human breast-tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:627-632
120. McCullough LD, Blizzard K, Simpson ER, Oz OK, Hurn PD (2003) Aromatase cytochrome P450 and extragonadal estrogen play a role in ischemic neuroprotection. J Neurosci 23:8701-8705
121. Faustini-Fustini M, Rochira V, Carani C (1999) Oestrogen deficiency in men: where are we today? Eur J Endocrinol 140:111-129
122. Carani C, Qin K, Simoni M, Faustini-Fustini M, Serpente S, Boyd J et al (1997) Effect of testosterone and estradiol a in man with aromatase deficiency. New Engl J Med 337:91-95
123. Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, Takahashi H, Cohen RM, Specker B et al (1994) Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen receptor gene in a man. New Engl J Med 331:1056-1061
124. Driggers PH, Segars JH (2002) Estrogen action and cytoplasmic signaling pathways. Part II: the role of growth factors and phosphorylation in estrogen signaling. Trends Endocrinol Metab 13:422-427
125. Segars J, Driggers P (2002) Estrogen action and cytoplasmic signaling cascades. Part I: membrane-associated signaling complexes. Trends Endocrinol Metab 13:349-354
126. Umayahara Y, Kawamori R, Watada H, Imano E, Iwama N, Morishima T, Yamasaki Y, Kajimoto Y, Kamada T (1994) Estrogen regulation of the insulin-like growth factor I gene transcription involves an AP-l enhancer. J Biol Chem 269:16433-16442
127. Kahlert S, Neudling S, van Eickels M, Vetter H, Meyer R, Groche C (2000) Estrogen receptor a rapidly activates the IGF-1 receptor pathway. J Biol Chem 275:18447-18453
128. Leung KC, Johannson G, Leong GM, Ho KKY (2004) Estrogen regulation of growth hormone action. Endocrine Rev 25:693-721
129. Henderson BE, Ross R, Bernstein L (1988) Estrogens as a cause of human cancer. Cancer Res 48:246-253
130. Pietras RJ, Marquez-Garban DC (2007) Membrane-associated estrogen receptor signaling pathways in human cancers. Clin Cancer Res 13:4672-4676
131. Marquez DC, Pietras RJ (2001) Membrane-associated binding sites for estrogen contribute to growth regulation in human breast cancer cells. Oncogene 20:5420-5430
132. Skov BG, Fischer BM, Pappot H (2008) Oestrogen receptor beta over expression in males with non-small cell lung cancer is associated with better survival. Lung Cancer 59:88-94
133. Stoner M, Wang F, Wormke M, Nguyen T, Samudio I, Vyhlidal C, Marme D, Finkenzeller G, Safe S (2000) Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in HEC1A endome-trial cancer cells through interactions of estrogen receptor alpha and Sp3 proteins. J Biol Chem 275:22769-22779
134. Massarweh S, Osborne CK, Creighton CJ, Qin L, Tsimelson A, Huang S, Weiss H, Rimawi M, Schiff R (2008) Tamoxifen resistance in breast tumors is driven by growth factor receptor signaling with repression of classic estrogen receptor genomic function. Cancer Res 68:826-833