International water law in central asia: Commitments, compliance and beyond

Journal of Water Law

Volumn 20, Issue 2-3, 2009, Pages 96-107

  Ziganshina, Dinara ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; CLIMATE CHANGE; COMPLIANCE; ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; HYDROELECTRIC POWER; INTERNATIONAL LAW; IRRIGATION SYSTEM; RUNOFF; TRANSBOUNDARY COOPERATION; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY; WATER RESOURCE;

AMU DARYA RIVER; ARAL SEA; CENTRAL ASIA; KAZAKHSTAN; SYR DARYA RIVER;

EID: 77954450991     PISSN: 14785277     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. The author would like to thank Patricia Wouters, Alistair Rieu-Clarke, and the editors of this journal for their valuable comments and suggestions on drafts of this article.
2. United Nations (UN) Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008 (UN DESA New York 2008) at 40.
3. B C Bates and others (eds) Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC Secretariat Geneva 2008).
4. UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) 'Guidance on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change to Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes' UN Doc ECEIMPWAT/30 2009 (UNECE Geneva 2009) www.unece.org/env/documents/2009/Wat/mp-wat/ECE-MP.WAT-30-E. pdf (5 March 2010).
5. See Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water (World Resources Institute Washington DC 2005).
6. See also H Tremblay 'An Analytical Framework for Legal Regimes Applicable to Freshwater Ecosystems' pp 152-64.
7. I Severskiy and others Global International Waters Assessment Aral Sea, GIWA Regional Assessment 24 (University of Kalmar on behalf of UNEP Kalmar 2005).
8. D Zaelke, M Stilwell and O R Young 'What Reason Demands: Making Law Work for Sustainable Development' in D Zaelke, D Kaniaru and E Kruží ková (eds) Making Law Work: Environmental Compliance and Sustainable Development (Cameron May London 2005).
9. See eg A Chayes and A H Chayes The New Sovereignly: Cornpliance with International Regulatosy Agreements (Harvard University Press Cambridge 1995)
10. E B Weiss and H Jacobson (eds) Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (MIT Press Cambridge 1998)
11. D Victor, K Raustiala and E Skolnikoff (eds) The Implementation and Effectiveness of International Environmental Commitments (MIT Press Cambridge 1998)
12. U Beyerlin, P-T Stoll and R Wolfrum (eds) Ensuring Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Dialogue between Practitioners and Academia (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Leiden/Boston 2006).
13. See also 'Guidelines on Compliance with and Enforcement of Multilateral Environmental Agreements' Doc UNEP(DEPI)/MEAs/WG1/3 Annex II
14. Guidelines for Strengthening Compliance with and Implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements in the ECE Region' Doc ECE/CEP/107.
15. UNECE Geneva Strategy and Framework for Monitoring Compliance with Agreements on Transboundary Waters (UNECE Geneva Strategy). UNECE and UNEP Network of Expert on Public Participation and Compliance 'Water Management: Guidance on Public Participation and Compliance with Agreements' UN Doc MPWAT!200Q'5 (17 December 1999) (UNECE Geneva 2000) www.unece.org/env/water/ publications/documents/guidance.pdf (10 March 2010).
16. Estimates on Afghanistan's contribution to the Amudarya flow vary. See V Dukhovny and V Sokolov Assessment of Water Resources in Northern Afghanistan, its Use and Impact to Region of the Amudaiya River Basin (SIC ICWC Tashkent 2002). This article does not address the relationships of the CARs with Afghanistan.
17. For more information Visit http://cawater-info.net/aral/water-e.htm (21 january 2010).
18. UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States Central Asian Human Development Report Bring. ing Down Barriers: Regional Cooperation for Human Development and Human Security (UNDP Bratislava 2005).
19. Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan are rich in hydro carbon, whereas the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan possess a massive and largely underdeveloped hydropower potential.
20. V Dukhovny and V Sokolov Lessons on Cooperation Building to Manage Water Conflicts in the Aral Sea Basin (UNESCO-IHP Paris 2003).
21. ibid..
22. See eg J Granit and others Regional Wafer Intelligence Report Central Asia (Stockholm International Water Institute Stockholm 2010).
23. V Dukhovny 'Case Study of the Syrdarya River 2002-2008' 21 IWRA Update Newsletter of the International Water Resources Association
24. World Bank Water Energy Nexus, Improving Regional Cooperation in the Syr-Daiya Basin (World Bank Washington DC 2004).
25. Including a number of large power projects started during the Soviet era and suspended for lack of funds after considerable costs had been incurred. Examples of hydropower projects include Sangtuda.1 and Sangtuda-2, Rogun and Dashtidjumn. Sangtuda HEP (670 MW, 2700 GWh) is the first step of the Sangtuda Water Power Development Vakhsh cascade http://minenergo.tj/davomash-en/ sangtudal-en.html
26. Sangtuda-2 HEP (220 MW 990 GWh) is the second step of the Sangtuda Water Power Development located between Baypaza and Golovnaya HPP of Vakhsh cascade http://minenergo.tj/davomash-en/sangtuda2-en.html
27. Rogun HEP (3600 MW 13,000 GWh) is the largest on the Vakhsh River http//minenergo.tj/davomash-en/rogun-en.html
28. Dashtidjumn HEP (4000 MW 15,600 kWh) is a hydro site straddling the Tajik Afghan border on the Pyandzh river http://minenergo.tj/davomash-en/ dashtijumges-en.html (21 January 2010).
29. World Bank Central Asia Regional Electricity Exports Potential Study. Europe and Central Asia Region (Washington DC 2004)
30. Energy Charter Secretariat 'Regional Electricity Cooperation in Central and Southern Asia: Opportunities for Increased Regional Trade and the Role of the Energy Charter Treaty' Occasional Papers No 3 (Brussels 2007)
31. S Peyrouse 'The Hydroelectric Sector in Central Asia and the Growing Rote of China' (2007) 5 China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 131-48.
32. ibid..
33. M Fay and others Adapting to Climate Change in Europe and Central Asia (World Bank Washington DC 2009) p 80 www.worldbank.org/eca/climate/ECA-CCA-Full- Report.pdf (21 january 2010).
34. See Address by H E Mr Vladimir Norov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan, at the general debate of the 64th session of the UN General Assembly (New York 28 September 2009) www.un.org/ga/64/generaldebate/ pdf/UZ.en.pdf (21 January 2010)
35. 'Uzbekistan Calls for International Control over Construction of New Hydropower Plants' Moscow Interfax (2 December 2009)
36. N Koroleva 'Kyrgyz Kambarata HEPs induce "irreversible negative environmental effects" to Uzbekistan' Centrasia in Russian (16 September 2009) www.centrasia.ru/news.php?st=1253080740 (21 January 2010).
37. Construction is being financed from the Tajik budget and through the sale of Rogun plant shares to the population. See eg 'Tajikistan Amnesties Money Spent On Hyrdoplant Shares' Moscow ITAR-TASS in English (24 February 2010);
38. 'German Envoy Warns of Social Impact of Tajik Power Plant Fund-Raising Campaign' Dushanbe Avesta in Russian (30 March 2010).
39. Address by President Islam Karimov at the meeting of heads of the IFAS founding states. Permanent Mission of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Nations (28 April 2009) www.un.int/wcm/content/site/uzbekistan/pid/9548 (10 February 2010).
40. Kazakhstan has recently supported Uzbekistan's position; J Lillis 'Uzbekistan: Nazarbayev Makes Diplomatic Trade-Off With Karimov' Eurasia Insight (18 March 2010) www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav031810 (19 March 2010).
41. L de Martino and others 'Environment and Security Transforming Risks into Cooperation - Central Asia' (UNEP, UNDP, OSCE and NATO Arendal 2005).
42. V Dukhovny and J de Schutter 'History of the Aral Sea: Degradation of The Aral Sea and South Prearalie' CAWATERInfo http://www.cawater-info.net/arat/ aral/3e.htm (10 March 2010).
43. de Martino 'Environment and Security' (n 25).
44. G Glysin 'From Aral to Arnasai' in Ecological Almanac 'Simply Writing on Environment' (in Russian 2005) http://kungrad.com/aral/book/arnasai/ (21 january 2010): 'Due to low carrying capacity of the Syrdarya river Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan were faced with threat of their lowlands inundation and were forced to divert wastefully water into Arnasai depression. As one of the impacts, an artificial Arnasai lake was expanded and surrounding hydrophilous vegetation area was inundated that led inter alia to decreasing self-purification capacity of the lake, disrupting food supply of herbivorous fish, and reducing wildlife population.'
45. 'Turkmen "Golden Lake" May Prove Green Disaster' Times of Central Asia (24 August 2009) www.cawater-info.net/news/08-2009/24-e.htm (15 February 2010)
46. also 'Turkmen President Explains Regional Importance of Artificial Lake in Karakum Desert' Turkmenistan.Ru (19 March 2010) http://turkmenistan.ru/?page- id=3&lang=id=en&elem-id=16577&type=event&sort=date-desc (23 March 2010).
47. K M Campbell and others The Age of Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security Implications of Global Climate Change (Center for Strategic and International Studies and Center for a New American Security Washington DC 2007) http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/071105-ageofconsequences.pdf (20 April 2010) p 67: 'countries in Central Asia and the Caucasus will become more strategically important because they can offer energy supplies and routing alternatives to the Middle East and Russia.
48. Nukus Declaration (20 September 1995)
49. Almaty Declaration (28 February 1997)
50. Ashgabat Declaration (9 April 1999)
51. Dushanbe Declaration (6 October 2002)
52. Almaty Joint Statement by the Heads of Founder-States of the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (28 April 2009) http://cawater-info. net/library/declar-e.htm (21 January 2010).
53. In 1994 the heads of CARs decided to adopt the Programme of concrete actions for environmental improvement in the Aral Sea basin over the next 3-5 years (ASBP-1) and to approve the main provisions of the strategy for addressing problems of Aral, Priaralie and the Aral Sea basin in light of regional socio-economic development. In 2002 they approved the Programme of concrete actions on environmental and socio-economic improvement in the Aral Sea basin for 2003-2010 (ASBP-2). In 2009 they mandated relevant agencies to develop ASBP-3 (Almaty Joint Statement n 31).
54. Agreement between the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and the Republic of Uzbekistan on Cooperation in the Field of Joint Management of the Use and Conservation of Water Resources of Interstate Sources (Almaty 18 February 1992) (1992 Almaty Agreement) an unofficial English translation can be found at http://cawater-info.net/library/eng/l/ca-cooperation.pdf (5 February 2010).
55. ibid Preamble.
56. The 1992 Almaty Agreement (n 33) reaffirmed that the 'pattern and principles of water allocation' in the Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers shall be based on criteria and volumes established in the Soviet era in 'The Schemes of Complex Water Resources Use and Protection See Resolution of the Expert Sub-Commission to the Gosplan (State Planning Committee) State Expert Commission of the USSR (12 March 1982)
57. Protocol ot the Scientific and Technical Council of the Ministry of Water Resources Management of the USSR on Approval of the Principles of Inter-Republican Water Allocation of the Syrdarya River Basin Resources No 413 (29 February 1984)
58. Protocol of the Scientific and Technical Council of the Ministry of Water Resources Manage ment of the USSR on Approval of the Principles of Inter-Republican Water Allocation of the Amudarya River Basin Resources No 556 (10 September 1987)
59. Decision of the Gosplan State Expert Commission of the USSR No 11 (5 March 1982).
60. Agreement between the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and the Republic of Uzbekistan on Joint Actions for Addressing the Problems of the Aral Sea and its Coastal Area, Improving the Environment, and Ensuring the Social and Economic Development of the Aral Sea Region (Kzyl-Orda 26 March 1993) (1993 Kzyl-orda Agreement) an unofficial English translation can be found at www.cawater-into.net/libray/ing/ l/kzylorda-agreement.pdf (7 February 2010).
61. ibid art 1.
62. Agreement between Turkmenistan and the Republic of Uzbeki Stan on Cooperation over Water Management Issues (Chardjev 16 january 1996) (1996 Chardjev Agreement) an unofficial English translation can be found at http://www.cawater-into.net/library/rus/uzb-tur-1.pdf (7 February 2010).
63. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kazakh stan, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the Use of Fuel and Water Resources, Construction and Operation of Gas Pipelines in Central Asian Region (Tashkent 5 April 1996).
64. ibid art 1.
65. Agreement between the Governments of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and the Republic of Uzbekistan on the Use of Water and Energy Resources of the Syrdarya Basin (Bishkek 17 March 1998) (Republic of Tajikistan joined in 1999) (1998 Syrdarya Agreement) an unofficial English translation can be found at cawater-info.net/library/eng/l/syrdarya-water-energy.pdf (3 February 2010).
66. ibid art 4.
67. ibid art 8.
68. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the Parallel Operation of the Energy Systems of Central Asian States (Bishkek 17 June 1999) an unofficial English translation can be found at http://www.cawater-info.net/library/eng/l/ parallel-agreement.pdf (7 February 2010).
69. ibid art 1.
70. E Marat 'Uzbekistan Announces its Withdrawal from Central Asian Power Grid' 6 (222) Eurasia Daily Monitor (3 December 2009).
71. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kazakh stan, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and the Government of the Republic of Uzbeklstan on Cooperation in the Area of Environ ment and Rational Nature Use, (Bishkek 17 March 1998) (1998 Environ mental Cooperation Agreement) an unofficial English translation can be found at http://www.cawater.info.net/ library/eng/l/nature-use.pdf (7 February 2010).
72. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Belarus, the Government of the Russian Federation, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan on the Main Principles of Interactions in the Field of Rational Use and Protection of the Transboundary Watercourses of the CIS (Moscow 11 September 1998) (entered into force for Belarus, Russian Federation and Tajikistan 6 June 2002) (1998 Moscow Agreement) www.cawater-info.net/library/rus/moscow4.pdf (10 February 2010).
73. Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers adopted by the ILA at the 52nd Conference (Helsinki August 1966) in S Bogdanović International Law of Water Resources - Contribution of the International Law Association (1954-2000) (Kluwer Law International The Hague 2001 p 89).
74. UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses (Helsinki 17 March 1992)31 ILM (1992)1312 (entered into force 6 October 1996) (UNECE Water Convention). For Status of ratification see http://treaties.un.org (3 February 2010).
75. Article 18 of the Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna 23 May 1969) 1155 UNTS 331 provides that 'a State is obliged to refrain from acts which would defeat the object and purpose of a treaty when ⋯ it has signed the treaty'.
76. A Tanzi Repoit of the UNECE Task Force on Legal and Administrative Aspects: The Relationship between the 1992 UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes and the 1997 UN Convention on the Law of the Non Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UNECE Geneva 2000) http://www.unece.org/env/water/publications/documents/ conventiontotal.pdf (10 March 2010)
77. P Wouters and S Vinogradov 'Analysing the ECE Water Convention: What Lessons for the Regional Management of Transboundary Water Resources?' in OS Stokke and Ø B Thommessen (eds) Yearbook of International Co-Operation on Environment and Development (Earthscan London 2003) pp 55-63
78. P Wouters 'What Lessons from Europe? A Comparative Analysis of the Legal Frame Works That Govern Europe's Transboundary Waters' (2006) 36(4) Environmental Law Reporter 10290-309.
79. B Libert Water Management in Central Asia and the Activities of UNECE' in M M Rahaman and O Vans (eds) Central Asian Waters: Social, Economic, Environmental And Governance Puzzle (Water and Development Publications Helsinki University of Technology Espoo 2008) p 37.
80. UNECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo 25 February 1991) 30 ILM 800 (1991) (entered into force 10 September 1997) (Espoo Convention).
81. UNECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents (Helsinki 17 March 1992) 31 ILM 1330 (1992) (entered into force 19 April 2000).
82. UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus 25 June1998) 38 ILM 517 (1999) (entered into force 30 October 2001) (Aarhus Convention).
83. UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (21 May1997) 36 ILM 700 (1997) (not yet in force) (UN Watercourses Convention). For status of ratification see http://treaties.un.org (3 February 2010).
84. S C McCaffrey The Law of International Watercourses (2nd edn Oxford University Press Oxford 2007).
85. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar 2 February 1971) 996 UNTS 245 (entered into force 21 December 1975) (Ramsar Convention).
86. UN Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro 5 June 1992) 31 ILM 818 (entered into force 29 December 1993) (Convention on Biodiversity).
87. UN Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa (Paris 14 October 1994) 33 ILM 1328 (entered into force 26 December 1996) (Convention on Desertification).
88. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York 9 May 1992) 31 ILM 849 (entered into force 21 March 1994) (Convention on Climate Change).
89. UNECE Geneva Strategy (n 9) p 39.
90. Charter of the United Nations (26 June 1945) Can TS 1945 No 7 (entered into force 24 October 1945) art 2(3).
91. United Nations General Assembly Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts in 'Report of the International Law Cornmission on the Work of its Fifty-third Session' UN GAOR, Supp (No 10) UN Doc A/56/10 (2001).
92. Note 8.
93. Chayes and Chayes (n 8) p 10.
94. 67 ibid.
95. UNECE Geneva Strategy (n 9) was prepared by a group of invited experts under the overall guidance of Prof W Kakebeeke (Nether lands) with the assistance of Prof P Wouters (United Kingdom) and N Bournan (Netherlands).
96. UNECE Geneva Strategy (n 9) p 39.
97. ibid pp 42-3.
98. See eg Beyerlin Ensuring Compliance (n 8).
99. T Franck The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (Oxford University Press Oxford 1990) (discussing determinacy and the sophist rule-idiot rule paradox).
100. For a broader analysis see S Vinogradov 'Transboundary Water Resources in the Former Soviet Union: Between Conflict and Cooperation' (1996) 36 Nat Resources J 393-416 (Pubitemid 127008298)
101. S Vinogradov and V Langford 'Managing Transboundary Water Resources in the Aral Sea Basin: in Search of a Solution' (2001)1 Int J Global Env'l Issues 345-62
102. S Vinogradov 'Background Paper on the Legal Basis for Transboundary Water Cooperation' (2004) CWC project workshop on Legal Basis for Transboundary Water Cooperation (in Russian)
103. B Mukhamadiev Evolution of a Treatybased Law in the Aral Sea Basin: Relevance, Application and Impact of International Water Law (unpublished LIM thesis University of Dundee 2006).
104. 1992 Almaty Agreement (n 33) Preamble.
105. Note 35.
106. 1993 Kzyl-Orda Agreement (n 36) art 1.
107. 1996 Chard jev Agreement (n 38) art 6.
108. V Dukhovny A Sorokin and A Nikulin 'Amudarya River Basin: Ways of Probable Conflicts Prevention' http://afeid.montpellier.cemagref.fr/Mpl2003/ Conf/Dukhovny.pdf (20 April 2010).
109. See Findings of the CARs reports on the effectiveness of existing basin agreements from the standpoint of national interests prepared under the ADB Regional Technical Assistance 6163 'Improvement of Shared Water Resources Management in Central Asia' (2005) http://cawater.info.net/reta/documents/index- e.htm (7 February 2010).
110. 1998 Environmental Cooperation Agreement (n 47) art 2.
111. 1998 Moscow Agreement (n 48) art 2.
112. UNECE Water Convention (n 50) art 2.
113. UNECE Draft Guide to Implementing the Convention Meeting of the Parties to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans boundary Watercourses and International Lakes (5th Sess 10-12 November 2009 Geneva) ECE/MP.WAT/2009/L.2.
114. UN Watercourses Convention (n 57) arts 5-6.
115. ibid art 7.
116. ibid art 8.
117. Ibid art 9.
118. ibid arts 12-16.
119. A Rieu-Clarke and F R Loures 'Still Not in Force: Should States Support the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention?' (2009) 18(2) RECIEL 185-97
120. S Vinogradov, P Wouters and P Jones Transforming Potential Conflict into Cooperation Potential: The Role of International Water Law (UNESCO Paris 2003).
121. UNECE Draft Guide to Implementing the Convention (n 83).
122. Protocol between the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the Use of Water and Energy Resources of the Naryn Syrdarya Cascade of Reservoirs in 2001 (Bishkek 20 May 2001) http://cawater-info.net/library/rus/gov2.pdf (10 March 2010).
123. 1992 Almaty Agreement (n 33) art 7.
124. ibid art 9.
125. 1993 Kzyl-Orda Agreement (n 36) art 2.
126. The International Fund for saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) is an inter state organisation founded to develop and finance environmental and scientific-practical projects and programmes aimed at environmental improvement in areas affected by the Aral disaster as well as at solving common socio-economic problems in the region. The IFAS has two intergovernmental bodies: Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) and Interstate Commission for Sustainable Develop ment (ICSD).
127. Agreement between the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and the Republic of Uzbekistan on the Status of IFAS and its Organisations (Ashgabad 9 April 1999) an unofficial English translation can be found at http//www.cawater-info.net/linrary/eng/ifas- e-1.pdf (7 February 2010).
128. United Nations General Assembly 'Resolution on Observer Status for the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea in the General Assembly' UN GAOR 63d Sess, Agenda item 156, UN Doc A/C6/63/L13 (14 November 2008).
129. Database and Management Information System for Water and Environment' project was listed as a priority project in the ASBP-1. The ASBP-2 included as one of the activities 'Strengthening Material/Technical and Legal Basis for Interstate Organisations, Development of Regional Information System Designed to Manage Water Resources of the Aral Sea Basin'.
130. For more information see http://www.cawater-info.net/about-e.htm (10 March 2010).
131. CAREWIB 2008 Progress Report (CAREWIB Tashkent/Arendal/Geneva 2009) http://cawater-info.net/library/eng/carewib/report-2008-en.pdf (10 March 2010).
132. ibid..
133. The Protocol on Water and Health to the UNECE Water Convention (London 17 June1999) ECOSOC Doc MP WAT/AC1/1999/1 (24 March 1999) (entered into force 4 August 2005) takes another step forward and includes several compliance review provisions. See UNECE and WHO Regional Office For Europe 'Report of the Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol on Water and Health' (Meeting of the Parties 1st Sess 17-19 January 2007 Geneva) ECE/MP WH/2JAdd3 EUR/06/5069385t1/Add3. The protocol's compliance mechanism is not covered here in detail as none of the CARs is a party to it.
134. Decision 11/10 on the review of the Espoo Convention (n 54).
135. Aarhus Convention (n 56) art 10(2).
136. Ramsar Convention (n 59) art 6 established a Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP) to review and promote its implementation. COP 2 (1984) recommended that all parties submit reports to the bureau six months before each ordinary COP. Ramsar Recommenda tions 2.1 and 4.3.
137. UN Convention on Biodiversity (n 60) art 26 calls upon parties to 'present to the Conference of the Parties, reports on measures which it has taken for the implementation of the provisions of this Convention and their effectiveness in meeting the objectives of this Convention
138. UN Convention on Desertification (n 61) art 26(1) states that 'each party shall communicate to the Conference of the Parties reports on the measures which it has taken for the implementation of the Convention For more information see http://www.cbd.int/reports/ (10 March 2010).
139. There are different reporting obligations for Annex I and non-Annex I Parties. UN Convention on Climate Change (n 62) art 7 pro vides for regular self-reporting by Annex I Parties. See http://unfccc.int/national/reports/items/ 1408.php (10 March 2010).
140. For more information on the Convention on Biodiversity (n 60) guidelines see http://www.cbd.int/reportsfguidelines/
141. on the Conven tion on Desertification (n 61) see http://www.unccd.int/ cop/cricsl helpguides.php (10 March 2010)
142. see also the Convention on Climate Change (n 62) Decisions 22JCP.7 and 22/CP.8 and http://unfccc.int/national/reports/items/1408.php (10 March 2010).
143. UN Convention on Climate Change (n 62) art 8 establishes a third-party process for independent review of self-reported information. The Convention on Climate Change Secretariat conducts on-site verifications, mainly to obtain performance information.
144. Ramsar Convention (n 59) Annex ito Recommendation 4.7.
145. UNEP 'Compliance Mechanisms under Selected Multilateral Environmental Agreements' (UNEP Nairobi 2007) p 13.
146. UNECE 'Facilitating and Supporting Implementation and Compliance: A Needed Step in the Convention's Evolution' 'background' document Meeting of the Parties to Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (5th Sess 10-12 November 2009 Geneva) ECE/MPWAT/2009/3.
147. UNECE Highlights Meeting of the Parties to Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (5th Sess 10-12 November 2009 Geneva) http://www.unece.org/env/water/mop5.htm (20 April 2010).
148. UNECE Water Convention (n 50) art 17(2): 'At their meetings, the Parties shall keep under continuous review the implementation of this Convention, and, with this purpose in mind, shall: ⋯ (f) Consider and undertake any additional action that may be required for the achievement of the purposes of this Convention'.
149. Espoo Convention (n 54) art 11(2) and Decision 11/4 of the 2nd Meeting of the Parties revised as Decision 111/2.
150. ibid art 3 and app IV.
151. Aarhus Convention (n 56) art 15 on review of compliance and Decision 1/7 on review of compliance adopted at the First Meeting of the Parties to the Aarhus Convention (21-23 October 2002).
152. S Kravchenko 'The Aarhus Convention and Innovations in Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements' (2007) 18(1) Colo J Int'l Envtl L & Pol'y p 1.
153. UN Watercourse Convention (n 57) art 33.
154. Ramsar Convention (n 59) official website http://www.ramsar.org/cdalen/ ramsar-about-bodies/main/ramsar/1.36-71-4000-0 (20 April 2010).
155. Decision 1/COP.5 of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention of Desertification. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Fifth Session (Geneva 1-12 October 2001) ICCD/COP(5)/11/Add1.
156. Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity Decision VII/30 para 23 http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7767 (20 April 2010).
157. UN Convention on Climate Change (n 62) art 10.
158. U Beyerlin, P-I Stoll and R Wolfrum 'Conclusion drawn from the Conference on Ensuring Compliance with MEAs' in Beyerlin Ensuring Compliance (n 8).
159. 2009 Almaty Joint Statement (n 31).
160. G Downs, D Rocke and P Barsoorn 'Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation? (1996) 50(3) Int'l Org 379-406.
161. T Bernauer and I Siegfried 'Compliance and Performance in International Water Agreements: The Case of the Naryn/Syr Darya Basin' (2008) 14 Global Gov 479-501.
162. J Brunnée Wrap-up Plenary What's Next in Implementation, Compliance and Effectiveness?' (1997) 91 Am Soc'y Int'l L Proc p 506.
163. 2009 Almaty Joint Statement (n 31).
164. M Koskenniemi The Gentle Civilizer of Nations. The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870-1960 (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2001) p 485.
165. A Rieu-Clarke A Fresh Approach to International Law in The Field of Sustainable Development: Lessons From The Law of International Watercourses (IWA Publishing London 2005).
166. O A Hathaway 'Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?' (2001-2002)111 Yale L J 1935-2042.
167. ibid p 2021.
168. Barcelona Traction Case (Second Phase) ICJ Reports 1970 P 3 (paras 33-34).
169. See generally, M Ragazzi The Concept of International Obligations Erga Omnes (Clarendon Press Oxford 1997)
170. P Wouters, S Vinogradov and B-O Magsig 'Water Security Hydrosolidarity and International Law: A River Runs through It ⋯' (2008) 19 Yearbook of International Environmental Law 97-134 at 132.
171. For example M Finnemore and K Sikkink 'International Norm Dynamics and Political Change' (1998) 52 Int'l Org 887-917
172. J Brunnee and S J Toope 'The Changing Nile Basin Regime: Does Law Matter?' (2002) 43 Harv Int'l L J 105-59.
173. R Howse and R Teitel 'Beyond Compliance: Rethinking Why International Law Really Matters' (New York University School of Law Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series Working Paper No 10-08 2010).
174. M M Reisman 'Necessary and Proper Executive Competence to Interpret Treaties' (1990) 15 Yale J Int'l L at 318.
175. T Franck 'Legitimacy in the International System' (1988) 82 Am J Int'l L at 725.
176. P Wouters and others Sharing Transboundar,' Waters - An Integrated Assessment of Equitable Entitlement: The Legal Assessment Model (IHP-VI Technical Documents in Hydrology No 74 UNESCO Paris 2005).
177. For example Fuller's conception of law: 'law is not, like management, a matter of directing other persons how to accomplish tasks set by a superior, but is basically a matter of providing the citizenry with a sound and stable framework for their interactions with one another, the role of government being that of standing as guardian of the integrity of this system'. L L Fuller The Morality of Law (Yale University Press New Haven 1969) 210.