Still not in force: Should States support the 1997 UN watercourses convention?

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 185-197

  Rieu clarke, Alistair ^a   Loures, Flavia Rocha ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DUNDEE   (United Kingdom)

^b PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF PARANÁ   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLOBALIZATION; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; NEGOTIATION PROCESS; UNITED NATIONS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED;

EID: 70350355250     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2009.00640.x     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (New York, 21 May 1997) (not yet in force) (UN Watercourses Convention).
2. Ibid., Preamble and Article 1.
3. A.T. Wolf et al., 'International River Basins of the World', 15:4 Int'l J. Water Resources Dev. (1999), 391.
4. Ibid.
5. United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook 4 - Environment for Development (UNEP, 2007), at 116. See also World Water Assessment Programme, Second UN Water Development Report: Water, A Shared Responsibility (United Nations, 2006), available at 〈http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap〉 United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2006 - Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis (UNDP, 2006), available at 〈http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr06-complete.pdf〉 P.H. Gleick et al., The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources 2006-2007 (Island Press, 2006).
6. L. Lewis, 'Water Shortages are Likely to be Trigger for Wars, says UN Chief Ban Ki-Moon', The Times (4 December 2007), available at 〈http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/ article2994650.ece〉.
7. Quoted in B. Crossette, 'Severe Water Crisis Ahead for Poorest Nations in Next Two Decades', New York Times (10 August 1995), available at 〈http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res= 990CE1D9143EF933A2575BC0A963958260〉.
8. 'Water Wars: Climate Change may Spark Conflict', The Independent (28 February 2006), available at 〈http://environment.independent.co.uk/ article348177.ece〉.
9. M.A. Giordano and A.T. Wolf, 'Sharing waters: Post-Rio International Water Management', 27 Nat. Resources F. (2003), 163, at 165.
10. 'Water in the Middle East: As Thick as Blood', 337:7946, The Economist (23 December 1995), 57, at 57.
11. A. Kibarôlu, Building a Regime for the Waters of the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin (Kluwer, 2002).
12. M. Niasse, Transboundary River Basins', in Atlas on Regional Integration in West Africa (ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD, 2006), available at 〈http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/41/45/38409569.pdf〉.
13. BBC News, 'African Floods Prompt Aid Appeal' (21 September 2007), available at 〈http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/ 7005969.stm〉.
14. P. Ashton, 'The Search for an Equitable Basis for Water Sharing in the Okavango River Basin', in M. Nakayama (ed.), International Waters in Southern Africa (United Nations University Press, 2003), 164.
15. See J. Brunnée and S. J. Toope, 'The Changing Nile Basin Regime: Does Law Matter?', 43 Harv. Int'l L.J. (2002), 105; J. Waterbury, The Nile Basin, National Determinants of Collective Action (Yale University Press, 2002).
16. ICJ 25 September 1997, Hungary v. Slovakia (Gabcíøkovo-Nagymaros Case), [1994] ICJ Rep. 151.
17. See D. Kemelova and G. Zhalkubaev, 'Water, Conflict, and Regional Security in Central Asia Revised', 11 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. (2003), 479; E.W. Sievers, 'Water Conflict and Regional Security in Central Asia', 10 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. (2002), 356; J.C. McMurray and A.D. Tarlock, 'The Law of Later-Developing Riparian States: The Case of Afghanistan', 12 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. (2005), 715.
18. See A.B. Wyatt and I.G. Baird, 'Transboundary Impact Assessment in the Sesan River Basin: The Case of the Yali Falls Dam', 23:3 Int'l J. of Water Resources Dev. (2007), 427; L.W. Davis, 'Reversing the Flow: International Law and Chinese Hydropower Development on the Headwaters of the Mekong River', 19 N.Y. Int'l L. Rev. (2006), 1.
19. See, e.g., D. Ross, 'International Management of the Flathead River Basin', 1 Colo. J. Int'l Envtl. L. Pol'y (1990), 223.
20. ICJ, Press Release 'Argentina Institutes Proceedings against Uruguay and Requests the Court to Indicate Provisional Measures' (4 May 2006), available at 〈http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?pr= 1010&p1=3&p2=1&case=135&p3=6.〉
21. See, generally, P.K. Wouters, 'Foreword', in P.K. Wouters (ed.), Selected Writings of Professor Charles B. Bourne, International and National Water Law and Policy Series, Vol. 1 (Kluwer, 1997), at xiii; S.C. McCaffrey, 'Water, Politics and International Law', in P.H. Gleick (ed.), Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources (Oxford University Press, 1993), 92; A.T. Wolf, 'Conflict and Cooperation over International Waterways', 1 Water Pol'y (1998), 251; A.T. Wolf et al., 'International Waters: Identifying Basins at Risk', 5 Water Pol'y (2003), 29; S.C. McCaffrey, 'Water Disputes Defined: Characteristics and Trends for Resolving Them', in International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (ed.), Resolution of International Water Disputes (Kluwer, 2003), 49.
22. See World Water Assessment Programme, n. 5 above, at 44. 'Water Governance', as broadly defined, encapsulates 'the range of political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place to regulate the development and management of water resources and provision of water services at different levels of society': P. Rogers and A.W. Hall, Effective Water Governance (GWP TEC Background Papers No. 7), available at 〈http://www.gwpforum.org/servlet/PSP?iNodeID= 215&itemId=197〉.
23. See P.K. Wouters and A.S. Rieu-Clarke, 'The Role of International Water Law in ensuring "Good Water Governance": A Call for Renewed Focus and Action', 15 Water L. (2004), 89; P.K. Wouters and A. Allan, 'What Role for Water Law in the Emerging "Good Governance" Debate?', 15 Water L. (2004), 85.
24. Second World Water Forum, 17-22 March 2000, Ministerial Declaration of the Hague on Water Security in the Twenty-First Century, available at 〈http://www.waternunc.com/gb/secwwf12.htm〉 International Conference on Freshwater, 3-7 December 2001, Water - Key to Sustainable Development: Bonn Keys, available at 〈http://www.water-2001.de/ outcome/〉 World Summit on Sustainable Development, 26 August-4 September 2002, Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (UN Doc. A/Conf.199/ 20, 4 September 2002); Third World Water Forum, 16-23 March 2006, Ministerial Declaration, available at 〈http://www.world.water-forum3.com〉.
25. See International Conference on Freshwater, ibid.
26. United Nations Environment Programme, Global International Waters Assessment, Challenges to International Waters - Regional Assessments in a Global Perspective (UNEP, 2006), 12 (GIWA).
27. See International Conference on Freshwater, n. 24 above, Declaration of African Ministers responsible for Water Resources, available at 〈http://www.thewaterpage.com/Documents/bonn_africa.doc〉.
28. M.A. Giordano and A.T. Wolf, 'Sharing Waters: Post-Rio International Water Management', 27 Nat. Resources F. (2003), 163; see also S. Vinogradov et al., Transforming Potential Conflict into Conflict Potential: The Role of International Water Law (UNESCO-IHP, 2003), available at 〈http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001332/ 133258e.pdf〉 P.K. Wouters, 'Water Security: What Role for International Water Law?', in F. Dodds and T. Pippard (eds), Human and Environmental Security: An Agenda for Change (Earthscan, 2005), 166.
29. Preliminary Studies on the Legal Problems relating to the Utilization and Use of International Rivers (UNGA Res. 1401 (XIV), 21 November 1959).
30. Report of the Secretary-General on the Legal Problems Relating to the Utilization of International Watercourses (UN Doc. A/5409, 15 April 1963).
31. Progressive Development and Codification of the Rules of International Law relating to International Watercourses (UNGA Res. 2669(XXV), 21 July 1971).
32. Draft Articles on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, in Report of the ILC on the Work of its Forty-Third Session, 46 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 10) (UN Doc. A/46/10, 10 September 1991) (1991 ILC Draft Articles), at 29. The Special Rapporteurs were Richard Kearney, Stephen Schwebel, Jens Evensen, Stephen McCaffrey and Robert Rosenstock.
33. See Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Comments and Observations Received from Governments (UN Doc. A/CN.4/447 and Add. 1-3, 3 March 1993). See also Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Replies of Governments to the Commission's Questionnaire (UN Doc. A/CN.4/294 and Add. 1, 1 April 1976); Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UN Doc. A/CN.4/314, 23 June 1978); Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Replies of Governments to the Commission's Questionnaire (UN Doc. A/CN.4/324, 13 July 1979); Law of the Non-Navigational Use of International Watercourses - Replies of Governments to the Commission's Questionnaire (UN Doc. A/CN.4/329 and Add. 1, 3 July 1980); Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Replies of Governments to the Commission's Questionnaire (UN Doc. A/CN.4/352 and Add. 1, 8 February 1982).
34. Draft Articles on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, in Report of the ILC on the Work of its Forty-Sixth Session (A/CN.4/SER.A/1994/Add.l (Part 2), 1996), 49 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 10) (1994 ILC Draft Articles), at 210.
35. Draft Articles on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UNGA Res. 49/52, 9 December 1994).
36. Ibid.
37. Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (UNGA Res. 59/ 53, 16 December 2004) (emphasis added).
38. For a detailed analysis of the Convention, see A. Tanzi and M. Arcari, The United Nations Convention of the Law of International Watercourses - A Framework for Sharing (Kluwer, 2001). See also P.K. Wouters, 'The Legal Response to International Water Conflicts: The UN Watercourses Convention and Beyond', 42 Ger. Y.B. Int'l L. (1999), 293.
39. See UN Watercourses Convention, n. 1 above, Preamble.
40. Ibid., Article 5.
41. Ibid., Article 6.
42. Ibid., Article 7.
43. Ibid., Article 7(2).
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid., Article 8(1).
46. Ibid., Articles 9, 11-19 and 24.
47. Ibid., Article 33(1)-(2).
48. Ibid., Article 33(2)-(10).
49. See S.M.A. Salman, 'The United Nations Watercourses Convention Ten Years Later: Why Has its Entry into Force Proven Difficult?', 32 Water Int'l (2007), 1.
50. See UN Watercourses Convention, n. 1 above.
51. In this sense, see C. Yamada, 'Statements of Understanding Pertaining to the Texts of the Draft Convention', in Report of the Sixth Committee convening as the Working Group of the Whole (UN Doc. A/51/869, 11 April 1997), 4, at 5, providing that, 'The present Convention will serve as a guideline for future watercourse agreements and, once such agreements are concluded, it will not alter the rights and obligations provided therein, unless such greements provide otherwise'.
52. See Egypt's statement explaning its abstention, in United Nations General Assembly, Fifty-First Session, Ninety-Ninth Plenary Meeting (UN Doc. A/51/PV.99, 21 May 1997) (Voting Records), at 10.
53. See Ethiopia's statement explaning its abstention, in ibid., at 9-10.
54. Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly, Summary Record of the First Part of the Sixty-Second Meeting (UN Doc. A/C.6/51/SR.62, 29 August 1997), at 6.
55. See, e.g., S.C. McCaffrey and M. Sinjela, 'Current Development: Adopted in 1997. The 1997 United Nations Convention on International Watercourses', 92 Am. J. Int'l L. (1998), 97, at 101-102.
56. See Sixth Committee, n. 54 above, at para. 3.
57. Ibid., paras 11, 15-24 and 28-32.
58. Ibid., at 87.
59. See Voting Records, n. 52 above, at 2 and 7-8.
60. bid.
61. See S.C. McCaffrey and M. Sinjela, n. 55 above, at 101-102.
62. Ibid.
63. See Sixth Committee, n. 54 above, at para. 3.
64. Status of Multilateral Agreements deposited with the Secretary General (United Nations, undated), available at 〈http://treaties.un.org/ Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-12&chapter= 27&lang=en〉. Eighteen further Contracting States are required for the Convention to enter into force; see UN Watercourses Convention, n. 1 above, Article 36(1).
65. SADC Revised Protocol on Shared International Watercourses (Windhoek, 7 August 2000).
66. Framework Agreement on the Sava River Basin (Kranjska Gora, 3 December 2002), available at 〈http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ mul45452.pdf〉.
67. Tripartite Interim Agreement for Cooperation on the Protection and Sustainable Utilization of the Water Resources of the Incomati and Maputo Watercourses (Johannesburg, 29 August 2002), available at 〈http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Docs/Other/IncoMaputo/ INCOMAPUTO%20AGREEMENT%2029%20AUGUST%202002.doc〉.
68. Protocol for the Sustainable Development of the Lake Victoria Basin (Arusha, 29 November 2003), available at 〈http://faolex.fao.org/ docs/pdf/mul41042.pdf〉.
69. Agreement on the Establishment of the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (Kasane, 13 July 2004), available at 〈http://www.zacpro.org/ downloads/ZAMCOM%20AGREEMENT.pdf〉.
70. Convention on the Status of the Volta River and the Establishment of the Volta Basin Authority (Ouagadougou, 19 January 2007).
71. See Gabcíøkovo-Nagymaros Case, n. 16 above.
72. Agreement on Management and Protection of Transboundary Rivers, P.R.C. (Astana, 12 September 2001), available at 〈http://faolex.fao.org/ docs/texts/bi-65815.doc〉.
73. Council and European Parliament Directive 2000/60/EC of 23 October 2000, establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, [2000] OJ L327/1.
74. Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki, 17 March 1992) (UNECE Water Convention).
75. See GIWA, n. 26 above, at 35.
76. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 9 May 1992) (UNFCCC); Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, 11 December 1997).
77. UN Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992) (CBD).
78. Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (Paris, 17 June 1994) (UNCCD).
79. Declaration of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UN Doc. A/Conf.151/26, 14 June 1992), Vol. I, Annex I; Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests (UN Doc. A/Conf.151/26, 14 June 1992), Vol. II, Annex II; Agenda 21: A Programme for Action for Sustainable Development (UN Doc. A/ Conf.151/26, 14 June 1992), Vo
80. E. Brown Weiss, 'International Environmental Law: Contemporary Issues and the Emergence of a New World Order', 81 Geo. L.J. 675 (1993), 697.
81. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 2 February 1971). See ibid., Article 5. Around 30% of present Ramsar sites are located in international river basins.
82. Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, 23 November 1972). A number of sites relevant to transboundary waters fall under the provisions of this Convention, including the Iguazu National Park, the Upper Middle Rhine Valley, the Dresden Elbe Valley, Lake Malawi, Danube Delta and the Victoria Falls.
83. See CBD, n. 77 above, Article 14(c).
84. See UNFCCC, n. 76 above, Article 4(e).
85. UNCCD, n. 78 above, Article 2(2).
86. FIELD, Implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements for Efficient Water Management (FIELD, 2005), at 4.
87. For more information on the relationship between the UN Watercourses Convention and other MEAs, see F.R. Loures et al., Everything you need to know about the UN Watercourses Convention (WWF, 2009), available at 〈http://assets.panda.org/downloads/ wwf_un_watercourses_brochure_for_web_1.pdf〉. See also S. Brels et al., CBD Technical Series No. 40: Transboundary Water Resources Management: The Role of International Watercourse Agreements in Implementation of the CBD (CBD, 2008), available at 〈http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/bibliography/WWF/ cbd+iwl.pdf〉.
88. A. Garane, UN Watercourses Convention: Applicability and Relevance in West Africa 2008), available at 〈http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/bibliography/WWF/ RA_West_Africa.pdf〉. See also interview by Keith Hayward with Patricia Wouters, in A.S. Rieu-Clarke, 'Entry into Force of the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention: Barriers, Benefits and Prospects', December, Water 21 (2007), 12.
89. 2007 Dakar Call for Action on the Ratification of the UN Watercourses Convention by West African States, at the workshop on the Relevance of the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention within West Africa (Dakar, Senegal, 20-21 September 2007) (Dakar Call for Action) (on file with authors).
90. For more information about the global initiative, its partners and some interesting materials produced, see UN Freshwater Agreements Initiative, UN Watercourses Convention (WWF, undated), available at 〈http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/policy/conventions/ water_conventions/un_watercourses_convention/〉.
91. See, e.g. German and Dutch justifications for ratifying the Convention, available at 〈http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/how_we_work/policy/ conventions/water_conventions/〉
92. See, for instance, UNECE Water Convention, n. 74 above; and Agreement on a Finnish-Norwegian Transboundary Water Commission (Helsinki, 5 November 1980), available at 〈http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node= 19139&lan=en〉.
93. See the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Comments and Observations Received from Governments, n. 33 above, at 151.
94. Ibid., at 168.
95. Major donors in the water sector include the EU and many of its Member States, such as France, Germany and the UK, as well as Japan and the USA. See J. Benn, 'Water Aid and Development: Improving the Flow', OECD Observer (March 2003), available at 〈http://www.oecdobserver.org〉. See also Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on Water Management in Developing Countries: Policy and Priorities for EU Development Cooperation, COM(2002) 132 final (12 March 2002).
96. See World Water Assessment Programme, n. 5 above.
97. See Progressive Development and Codification of the Rules of International Law relating to International Watercourses, n. 31 above.
98. C. Bourne, 'Procedure in the Development of International Drainage Basins: Notice and Exchange of Information', in P.K. Wouters, n. 21 above, at 143.
99. On the role of effective international conventions in accelerating the development of international law, see ICJ 20 February 1969, FRG v. Dem.; FRG v. Neth. (North Sea Continental Shelf Cases), [1969] ICJ Rep. 3, at para. 71.
100. See J.G. Lammers, Potential Effects from Non-Entry into Force', paper presented at the Seminar UN Watercourses Convention: Legacy, Prospects and Value for the Realization of International Policy Goals (World Water Week, Stockholm, Sweden, 17-23 August 2008) (on file with authors).
101. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982) (in force 16 November 1994), available at 〈http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/ unclos_e.pdf〉.
102. See GIWA, n. 26 above.
103. See the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses - Comments and Observations Received from Governments, n. 33 above, at 164.
104. International Law Commission, Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers, found in Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-Third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/63/10, 19 September 2008).
105. See 1992 UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: A Booklet for All who Care About and Work for Clean Water (UNECE, 2004), available at 〈http://www.unece.org/env/water/documents/ brochure_water_convention.pdf〉.
106. See International Conference on Freshwater, n. 24 above.
107. World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development - A New Framework for Decision-Making (World Commission on Dams, 2000), at 253.
108. UN Secretary-General Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation, Hashimoto Compendium of Actions (March 2006), available at 〈http://www.unsgab.org/docs/HAP_en.pdf〉.
109. See Dakar Call for Action, n. 89 above.
110. Treaty Event, Focus 2007: Towards Universal Participation and Implementation - A Comprehensive Legal Framework for Peace, Development and Human Rights (25-27 September and 1-2 October 2007) (UN, 2007), available at 〈http://untreaty.un.org/English/TreatyEvent2007/ book_english.pdf〉 Treaty Event, Focus 2008: Dignity and Justice for All of Us (23-25 and 29-30 September 2008) (UN, 2008), available at 〈http://untreaty.un.org/English/CNs/2008/101_200/158E.pdf〉 Treaty Event, Focus 2009: Towards Universal Participation and Implementation (23-25 and 28-29 September 2009) (UN, 2009), available at 〈http://treaties.un.org/Pages/TreatyEvents.aspx?pathtreaty=Treaty/ Focus/Page1_en.xml〉.
111. H.E. Mr. Islam Karimov, President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Address at the Delegation-level Meeting of the Council of Heads of the SCO Member States (16 August 2007), available at 〈http://www.pressservice.uz/en/gsection.scm?groupId= 4656&contentId=31841〉.
112. R. Boyd et al., 'Fifth World Water Forum Highlights', 82:18 World Water Forum Bulletin (19 March 2009), available at 〈http://www.iisd.ca/ ymb/water/worldwater5/〉.
113. Fifth World Water Forum, Regional Documents (Fifth World Water Forum, undated), available at 〈http://content.worldwaterforum5.org/files/ RegionalDocuments/〉.
114. R. Boyd et al., 'Fifth World Water Forum Highlights', 82:21 World Water Forum Bulletin (22 March 2009), available at 〈http://www.iisd.ca/ ymb/water/worldwater5/〉.
115. WWF, Interest Grows in Neglected Global Water Treaty (WWF, 21 March 2009), available at 〈http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/ about_freshwater/freshwater_news/?159822/ Interest-grows-inneglected-global-water-treaty〉.