Maintaining the system with tokenism: Bolstering individual mobility beliefs and identification with a discriminatory organization

British Journal of Social Psychology

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 343-362

  Danaher, Kelly ^a   Branscombe, Nyla R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; CAREER MOBILITY; DECISION MAKING; EMOTION; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMAN; MALE; ORGANIZATION; PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT; POLICY; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; CAREER MOBILITY; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HIERARCHY, SOCIAL; HUMANS; JUDGMENT; MALE; ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE; ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY; PERSONNEL SELECTION; PREJUDICE; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 77953574898     PISSN: 01446665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1348/014466609X457530     Document Type: Article

References (33)

1. Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., & Palacios, M. S. (2004). The backlash of token mobility: The impact of past group experiences on individual ambition and effort. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1433-1445.
2. Bertrand, M., & Hallock, K. F. (2001). The gender gap in top corporate jobs. Industrial and Labor Relations, 55, 3-21.
3. Catalyst (2006). 2006 Catalyst census of women corporate officers, top earners, and directors of the Fortune 500. Retrieved from the Catalyst web site:http://www.catalyst.org
4. Catalyst (2007). 2007 Catalyst census finds women gained ground as board committee chairs: Overall women's representation in senior leadership positions stagnates. Retrieved from the Catalyst web site: http://www.catalyst.org
5. Eibach, R. P., & Ehrlinger, J. (2006). 'Keep your eyes on the prize': Reference points and racial differences in assessing progress toward equality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 66-77.
6. Ellemers, N., & Barreto, M. (2009). Maintaining the illusion of meritocracy: How men and women interactively sustain gender inequality at work. In S. Demoulin, J. P. Leyens, & J. F. Dovidio (Eds.), Intergroup misunderstandings: Impact of divergent social realities (pp. 191-212). New York: Psychology Press.
7. Floge, L., & Merrill, D. M. (1986). Tokenism reconsidered: Male nurses and female physicians in a hospital setting. Social Issues, 64, 925-947.
8. Garcia, D. M., Desmarais, S., Branscombe, N. R., & Gee, S. S. (2005). Opposition to redistributive employment policies for women: The role of policy experience and group interest. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 583-602. doi:10.1348/014466604X17542
9. Haslam, S. A., Postmes, T., & Ellemers, N. (2003). More than a metaphor: Organizational identity makes organizational life possible. British Journal of Management, 14, 357-369.
10. Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25, 881-919.
11. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965-989.
12. Karrasch, R. I. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of organizational commitment. Military Psychology, 15, 225-236.
13. Lalonde, R. N., & Silverman, R. A. (1994). Behavioral preferences in response to social injustice: The effects of group permeability and social identity salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 78-85.
14. Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302-318.
15. Pelosi, N. (2007, January 4). Pelosi calls for a new America, built on the values that made our country great. Retrieved from http://speaker.gov/newsroom/speeches?id=0006
16. Reynolds, K. J., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., Nolan, M. A., & Dolink, L. (2000). Responses to powerlessness: Stereotyping as in instrument of social conflict. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 275-290.
17. Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single item measure and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151-161.
18. Sackett, P. R., DuBois, L. Z., & Noe, A. W. (1991). Tokenism in performance evaluation: The effects of work group representation on male-female and white-black differences in performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 263-267.
19. Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. (2002). Perceiving discrimination against one's gender group has different implication for well-being in women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 197-210.
20. Schmitt, M. T., Spoor, J. R., Danaher, K., & Branscombe, N. R. (2009). Rose-colored glasses: How tokenism and comparisons with the past reduce the visibility of gender inequality. In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass ceiling in the 21st century (pp. 49-71). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
21. Spangler, E., Gordon, M. A., & Pipkin, R. M. (1978). Token women: An empirical test of Kanter's hypothesis. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 160-170.
22. Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
23. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), The psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
24. Tyler, T. R., & Blader, S. L. (2001). Identity and cooperative behavior in groups. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 4, 207-226.
25. US Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings (2005, November). 2006 Annual averages and the monthly labor review. Retrieved from the US Department of Labor web site: http://www.dol.gov/wb/stats/main.htm
26. US Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006, September). Women in the labor force: A databook. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2006.pdf
27. Williams, C. L. (1992). The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the 'female' profession. Social Problems, 39, 253-267.
28. Wright, S. C. (1997). Ambiguity, social influence, and collective action: Generating collective protest in response to tokenism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1277-1290.
29. Wright, S. C. (2001). Restricted intergroup boundaries: Tokenism, ambiguity, and the tolerance of injustice. In J. T. Jost & B. Major (Eds.), The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations (pp. 223-254). New York: Cambridge University Press.
30. Wright, S. C., & Taylor, D. M. (1998). Responding to tokenism: Individual action in the face of collective injustice. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 647-667.
31. Wright, S. C., & Taylor, D. M. (1999). Success under tokenism: Co-option of the newcomer and the prevention of collective protest. British Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 369-396. doi:10.1348/014466699164220
32. Yoder, J. D. (2002). Context matters: Understanding tokenism processes and their impact on women's work. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 1-8.
33. Yoder, J. D., & McDonald, T. W. (1998). Measuring sexist discrimination in the workplace: Support for the validity of the schedule of sexist events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 487-491.