JC virus infection of the brain

American Journal of Neuroradiology

Volumn 31, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 1564-1576

  Bag, Asim K ^a   Cure J K ^a   Chapman, P R ^a   Roberson, G H ^a   Shah, R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTI HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CALCINEURIN INHIBITOR; CIDOFOVIR; CYTARABINE; EFALIZUMAB; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; NATALIZUMAB; RITUXIMAB; STEROID; TOPOTECAN; VIRUS DNA;

ANTIVIRAL THERAPY; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BRAIN ANGIOGRAPHY; BRAIN ATROPHY; BRAIN BIOPSY; BRAIN DAMAGE; BRAIN INFECTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CROHN DISEASE; DEMYELINATION; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; DISEASE COURSE; DNA DETERMINATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; GRAY MATTER; HEMATOLOGIC DISEASE; HEMATOLOGIC MALIGNANCY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNE RECONSTITUTION INFLAMMATORY SYNDROME; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INFECTION RATE; INFECTION RISK; JC VIRUS; JC VIRUS INFECTION; MENINGITIS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; PATIENT MONITORING; PROGNOSIS; PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; PSORIASIS; RHEUMATIC DISEASE; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; STEROID THERAPY; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS PATHOGENESIS; WHITE MATTER;

BRAIN; HUMANS; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY, PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY;

EID: 77953472485     PISSN: 01956108     EISSN: 1936959X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.A2035     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Padgett BL, Walker DL, Zu Rhein GM, et al. Cultivation of papova-like virus from human brain with progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. Lancet 1971;29:1257-60
2. Åström KE, Mancall EL, Richardson EP. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a hitherto unrecognized complication of chronic lymphatic leukaemia and Hodgkin's disease. Brain 1958;81:93-111
3. Hartman EA, Huang D. Update on PML: lessons from the HIV uninfected and new insights in pathogenesis and treatment. Curr Hiv/AIDS Rep 2008;5:112-19
4. Bofill-Mas S, Formiga-Cruz M, Clemente-Casares P, et al. Potential transmission of human polyomaviruses through the gastrointestinal tract after exposure to virions or viral DNA. J Virol 2001;75:10290-99
5. Monaco MC, Jensen PN, Hou J, et al. Detection of JC virus DNA in human tonsil tissue: evidence for site of initial viral infection. J Virol 1998;72:9918-23 (Pubitemid 28520858)
6. Gheuens S, Pierone G, Peeters P, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in individuals with minimal or occult immunosuppression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010;81:247-54
7. Bienaime A, Colson P, Moreau J, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-2-infected patient. AIDS 2006;20:1342-43 (Pubitemid 44030390)
8. Stoner GL, Agostini HT, Ryschkewitsch CF, et al. Detection of JC virus in two African cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy including identification of JCV type 3 in a Gambian AIDS patient. J Med Microbiol 1998;47:733-42
9. d'Arminio Monforte A, Cinque P, Mocroft A, et al. Changing incidence of central nervous system diseases in the EuroSIDA cohort. Ann Neurol 2004;55:320-28
10. Lang W, Miklossy J, Deruaz JP, et al. Neuropathology of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): a report of 135 consecutive autopsy cases from Switzerland. Acta Neuropathol 1989;77:379-90 (Pubitemid 19070180)
11. Cinque P, Vago L, Dahl H, et al. Polymerase chain reaction on cerebrospinal fluid for diagnosis of virus-associated opportunistic diseases of the central nervous system in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 1996;10:951-58
12. Falco V, Olmo M, del Saz SV, et al. Influence of HAART on the clinical course of HIV-1-infected patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: results of an observational multicenter study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008;49:26-31
13. Mocroft A, Sterne JA, Egger M, et al. Variable impact on mortality of AIDS-defining events diagnosed during combination antiretroviral therapy: not all AIDS-defining conditions are created equal. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1138-51
14. Lewden C, May T, Rosenthal E, et al. Changes in causes of death among adults infected by HIV between 2000 and 2005: the "Mortalite 2000 and 2005" surveys (ANRS EN19 and Mortavic). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008;48:590-98
15. Garcia-Suarez J, deMiguel D, Krsnik I, et al. Changes in the natural history of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-negative lymphoproliferative disorders: impact of novel therapies. Am J Hematol 2005;80:271-81 (Pubitemid 41746174)
16. Shitrit D, Lev N, Bar-Gil-Shirit A, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in transplant recipients. Transpl Int 2005;17:658-65 (Pubitemid 40558222)
17. Kharfan-Dabaja MA, Ayala E, Greene J, et al. Two cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after allogenic hematopoietic cell transplantation and review of the literature. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007;39:101-07 (Pubitemid 46085228)
18. Calabrese LH, Molloy ES, Huang D, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in rheumatic diseases: evolving clinical and pathological patterns of disease. Arthritis Rheum 2007;56:2116-28
19. Hayashi Y, Kimura A, Kato S, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and CD4+ T-lymphocytopenia in a patient with Sjögren syndrome. J Neurol Sci 2008;268:195-98
20. De Raedt S, Lacor P, Michotte A, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy as first manifestation of sarcoidosis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2008;110:186-89
21. Van Assche G, Van Ranst M, Sciot R, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after natalizumab therapy for Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 2005;353:362-68
22. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Tyler KL. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy complicating treatment with natalizumab and interferon beta-1a for multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:369-74
23. Langer-Gould A, Atlas SW, Green AJ, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in a patient treated with natalizumab. N Engl J Med 2005;353:375-81
24. Molloy ES, Calabrese LH. Therapy: targeted but not trouble-free - efalizumab and PML. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2009;5:418-19
25. Carson KR, Focosi D, Major EO, et al. Monoclonal antibody associated progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in patients treated with rituximab, natalizumab, and efalizumab: a review from the Research on Adverse Drug Events and Reports (RADAR) Project. Lancet Oncol 2009;10:816-24
26. Tyler KL. Emerging viral infections of the central nervous system: part 2. Arch Neurol 2009;66:1065-74
27. US Food and Drug Administration. Information for healthcare professionals: rituximab (marketed as Rituxan). http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm126519.htm
28. Haider S, Nafziger D, Gutierrez JA, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and idiopathic CD4+ lymphocytopenia: a case report and review of reported cases. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:E20-22
29. Chikezie PU, Grennberg AL. Idiopathic CD41 T lymphocytopenia presenting as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: case report. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:526-27
30. Iwase T, Kosei O, Katada E, et al. An unusual course of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in a patient with idiopathic CD41 T lymphocytopenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:788-91
31. Scotton PG, Vaglia A, Carniato A, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in a patient with common variable immunodeficiency. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:215-16
32. Narula S, LaRosa DF, Kamoun M, et al.. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in a patient with common variable immunodeficiency and abnormal CD8+ T-cell subset distribution. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007;98:483-89
33. Goldmann C, Petry H, Frye S, et al. Molecular cloning and expression of major structural protein VP1 of the human polyomavirus JC virus: formation of virus-like particles useful for immunological and therapeutic studies. J Virol 1999;73:4465-69
34. Goldmann C, Stolte N, Nisslein T, et al. Packaging of small molecules into VP1-virus-like particles of the human polyomavirus JC virus. J Virol Methods 2000;90:85-90
35. Weber T. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurol Clin 2008;26:833-54
36. Lednicky JA, Vilchez RA, Keitel WA, et al. Polyomavirus JCV excretion and genotype analysis in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2003;17:801-07
37. Tan CS, Dezube BJ, Bhargava P, et al. Detection of JC virus DNA and proteins in the bone marrow of HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients: implications for viral latency and neurotropic transformation. J Infect Dis 2009;199:881-88
38. Cinque P, Koralnik IJ, Gerevini S, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-1 infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2009;9:625-36
39. Jensen PN, Major EO. A classification scheme for human polyomavirus JCV variants based on the nucleotide sequence of the noncoding regulatory region. J Neurovirol 2001;7:280-87
40. Lima MA, Marzocchetti A, Autissier P, et al. Frequency and phenotype of JC virus-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes in the peripheral blood of patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Virol 2007;81:3361-68
41. Berger JR. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: explaining the high incidence and disproportionate frequency of the illness relative to other immunosuppressive conditions. J Neurovirol 2003;9:38-41
42. Cinque P, Bossolasco S, Brambilla AM, et al. The effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy-induced immune reconstitution on development and outcome of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: study of 43 cases with review of the literature. J Neurovirol 2003;9:73-80
43. Khanna N, Elzi L, Mueller NJ, et al. Incidence and outcome of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy over 20 years of the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1459-66
44. Gasnault J, Kahraman M, de Goer de Herve MG, et al. Critical role of JC virus-specific CD4 T-cell responses in preventing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. AIDS 2003;17:1443-49
45. DuPasquier RA, Kuroda MJ, Zheng Y, et al. A prospective study demonstrates an association between JC virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and the early control of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Brain 2004;127:1970-78
46. Giudici B, Vaz B, Bossolasco S, et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: effects on cerebrospinal fluid markers of JC virus replication and immune response. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:95-99
47. Berger JR, Pall L, Lanska D, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with HIV infection. J Neurovirol 1998;4:59-68
48. Lima MA, Drislane FW, Koralnik IJ. Seizures and their outcome in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 2006;66:262-64
49. Whiteman ML, Post MJ, Berger JR, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in 47 HIV-seropositive patients: neuroimaging with clinical and pathologic correlation. Radiology 1993;187:233-40
50. Richardson EP Jr. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.N Engl J Med 1961;265:815-23
51. Ng S, Tse VC, Rubinstein J, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: unusual MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19:302-05
52. Huang D, Cossoy M, Li M, et al. Inflammatory progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients. Ann Neurol 2007;62:34-39
53. Miralles P, Berenguer J, Lacruz C, et al. Inflammatory reactions in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001;15:1900-02
54. Vendrely A, Bienvenu B, Gasnault J, et al. Fulminant inflammatory leukoencephalopathy associated with HAART-induced immune restoration in AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Acta Neuropathol 2005;109:449-55
55. Koralnik IJ, Wüthrich C, Dang X, et al. JC virus granule cell neuronopathy: a novel clinical syndrome distinct from progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann Neurol 2005;57:576-80
56. Dang X, Koralnik IJ. A granule cell neuron-associated JC virus variant has a unique deletion in the VP1 gene. J Gen Virol 2006;87:2533-37 57. Blake K, Pillay D, Knowles W, et al. JC virus associated meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent girl. Arch Dis Child 1992;67:956-57 (Pubitemid 44241228)
57. Behzad-Behbahani A, Klapper PE, Vallely PJ, et al. BKV-DNA and JCV-DNA in CSF of patients with suspected meningitis or encephalitis. Infection 2003;31:374-78 (Pubitemid 38005365)
58. Viallard JF, Ellie E, Lazaro E, et al. JC virus meningitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2005;14:964-66 (Pubitemid 43088271)
59. Wüthrich C, Dang X, Westmoreland S, et al. Fulminant JC virus encephalopathy with productive infection of cortical pyramidal neurons. Ann Neurol 2009;65:742-48
60. DeSimone JA, Pomerantz RJ, Babinchak TJ. Inflammatory reactions in HIV-1-infected persons after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:447-54
61. Shelburne SA, Montes M, Hamill RJ. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: more answers, more questions. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;57:167-70 (Pubitemid 43160154)
62. Shelburne SA, Visnegarwala F, Darcourt J, et al. Incidence and risk factors for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome during highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2005;19:399-406 (Pubitemid 40446186)
63. Shelburne SA, Darcourt J, White AC, et al. The role of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS related Cryptococcus neoformans disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:1049-52 (Pubitemid 40418316)
64. Price P, Morahan G, Huang D, et al. Polymorphisms in cytokine genes define subpopulations of HIV-1 patients who experienced immunerestoration diseases. AIDS 2002;16:2043-47
65. Stoll M, Schmidt RE. Immune restoration inflammatory syndromes: apparently paradoxical clinical events after the initiation of HAART. Curr HIV/ AIDS Rep 2004;1:122-27
66. Robertson J, Meier M, Wall J, et al. Immune reconstitution syndrome in HIV: validating a case definition and identifying clinical predictors in persons initiating antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:1639-46 (Pubitemid 43752655)
67. Riedel DJ, Pardo CA, McArthur J, et al. Therapy insight: CNS manifestations of HIV-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Nat Clin Prac Neurol 2006;2:557-65
68. Huyst V, Lynen L, Bottieau E, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in an HIV/TB co-infected patient four years after starting antiretroviral therapy. Acta Clin Belg 2007;62:126-29
69. Shelburne SA 3rd, Hamill RJ. The immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS Rev 2003;5:67-79
70. Venkataramana A, Pardo CA. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the CNS of HIV-infected patients. Neurology 2006;67:383-88 (Pubitemid 44214957)
71. D'Amico R, Sarkar S, Yusuff J, et al. Immune reconstitution after potent antiretroviral therapy in AIDS patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Scand J Infect Dis 2007;39:347-50 (Pubitemid 46567387)
72. Manabe Y, Campbell JD, Sydnor E, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: risk factors and treatment implications. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007;46:456-62 (Pubitemid 350098697)
73. Broom J, Woods M 2nd, Allworth A. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome producing atypical presentations of cryptococcal meningitis: case report and a review of immune reconstitution-associated cryptococcal infections. Scand J Infect Dis 2006;38:219-21 (Pubitemid 43307536)
74. Cinque P, Pierotti C, Vigano MG, et al. The good and evil of HAART in HIV-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neurovirol 2001;7:358-63
75. French MA. HIV/AIDS: immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome - a reappraisal. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:101-07
76. Tan K, Roda R, Ostrow L, et al. PML-IRIS in patients with HIV infection: clinical manifestations and treatment with steroids. Neurology 2009;72:1458-64
77. Koralnik IJ, Boden D, Mai VX, et al. JC virus DNA load in patients with and without progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 1999;52:253-60
78. Skolasky RL, Dal Pan GJ, Olivi A, et al. HIV-associated primary CNS morbidity and utility of brain biopsy. J Neurol Sci 1999;163:32-38
79. Cinque P, Scarpellini P, Vago L, et al. Diagnosis of central nervous system complications in HIV-infected patients: cerebrospinal fluid analysis by the polymerase chain reaction. AIDS 1997;11:1-17 (Pubitemid 27023207)
80. Antinori A, Cingolani A, Lorenzini P, et al. Clinical epidemiology and survival of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: data from the Italian Registry Investigative Neuro AIDS (IRINA). J Neurovirol 2003;9(suppl 1):47-53
81. Marzocchetti A, Di Giambenedetto S, Cingolani A, et al. Reduced rate of diagnostic positive detection of JC virus DNA in cerebrospinal fluid in cases of suspected progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:4175-77
82. Post MJ, Sheldon JJ, Hensley CT, et al. Central nervous system disease in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: prospective correlation using CT, MR imaging, and pathologic studies. Radiology 1986;158:141-48
83. Post MJ, Tate LG, Quencer RM, et al. CT, MR, and pathology in HIV encephalitis and meningitis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1988;9:469-76
84. Cuilleux MH, Steiner RE, Young IR. MR imaging in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1986;7:1033-35
85. Mark AS, Atlas SW. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS: appearance on MR images. Radiology 1989;173:517-21
86. Thurnher MM, Thurnher SA, Muhlbauer B, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS: initial and follow-up CT and MRI. Neuroradiology 1997;39:611-18
87. Post MJ, Yiannoutsos C, Simpson D, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS: are there any MR findings useful to patient management and predictive of patient survival? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:1896-906
88. Gray F, Geny C, Lescs MC, et al. AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy limited to U fibers, responsible for subacute encephalopathy with normal CT scan findings [in French]. Arch Anat Cytol Pathol 1992;40:132-37
89. Trotot PM, Vazeux R, Yamashita HK, et al. MRI pattern of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in AIDS: pathological correlations. J Neuroradiol 1990;17:233-54
90. Koralnik IJ, Schellingerhout D, Frosch MP. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital: weekly clinicopathological exercises - case 14-2004. a 66-year-old man with progressive neurologic deficits. N Engl J Med 2004;350:1882-93
91. Thurnher MM, Post MJ, Rieger A, et al. Initial and follow-up MR imaging findings in AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2001;22:977-84
92. Major EO, Ault GS. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: clinical and laboratory observations on a viral induced demyelinating disease in the immunodeficient patient. Curr Opin Neurol 1995;8:184-90
93. Takeda S, Yamazaki K, Miyakawa T, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy showing extensive spinal cord involvement in a patient with lymphocytopenia. Neuropathology 2009;29:485-93
94. Bernal-Cano F, Joseph JT, Koralnik IJ. Spinal cord lesions of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient. J Neurovirol 2007;13:474-76
95. Sweeney BJ, Manji H, Miller RF, et al. Cortical and subcortical JC virus infection: two unusual cases of AIDS associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:994-97
96. Bienfait HP, Louwerse ES, Portegies P, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy presenting as a solitary gray matter lesion. J Neurol 1998;245:557-58
97. Sarrazin JL, Soulie D, Derosier C, et al. MRI patterns of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neuroradiol 1995;22:172-79
98. Yousry TA, Major EO, Ryschkewitsch C, et al. Evaluation of patients treated with natalizumab for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2006;354:924-33
99. Wheeler AL, Truwit CL, Kleinschimdt-DeMasters BK, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: contrast enhancement on CT scans and MR images. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;161:1049-51
100. Bergui M, Bradac GB, Oguz KK, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: diffusion-weighted imaging and pathological correlations. Neuroradiology 2004;46:22-25
101. Henderson RD, Smith MG, Mowat P, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 2002;58:1825
102. Norris DG, Niendorf T, Hoehn-Berlage M, et al. Incidence of apparent restricted diffusion in three different models of cerebral infarction. Magn Reson Imaging 1994;12:1175-82
103. Verheul HB, Balazs R, Berkelbach van der Sprenkel JW, et al. Comparison of diffusion-weighted MRI with changes in cell volume in a rat model of brain injury. NMR Biomed 1994;7:96-100
104. Qiao M, Malisza KL, Del Bigio MR, et al. Transient hypoxia-ischemia in rats: changes in diffusion-sensitive MR imaging findings, extracellular space, and Na+-K+-adenosinetriphosphatase and cytochrome oxidase activity. Radiology 2002;223:65-75
105. Moseley ME, Kucharczyk J, Asgari HS, et al. Anisotropy in diffusion-weighted MRI. Magn Reson Med 1991;19:321-26
106. Huisman TA, Boltshauser E, Martin E, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: early predictor for demyelination? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005;26:2153-56
107. Usiskin SI, Bainbridge A, Miller RF, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: serial high-b-value diffusion-weighted MR imaging and apparent diffusion coefficient measurements to assess response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007;28:285-86
108. Dousset V, Armand JP, Lacoste D, et al. Magnetization transfer study of HIV encephalitis and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: Groupe d'Epidemiologie Clinique du SIDA en Aquitaine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997;18:895-901
109. Dousset V, Armand J-P, Huot P, et al. Magnetization transfer imaging in AIDS-related brain diseases. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 1997;7:447-60
110. Kreis R, Ernst T, Ross BD. Development of the human brain: in vivo quantification of metabolite and water content with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med 1993;30:424-37
111. Castillo M, Kwock L, Mukherji SK. Clinical applications of proton MR spectroscopy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996;17:1-15
112. Hurley RA, Ernst T, Khalili K, et al. Identification of HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003;15:1-6
113. Brand A, Richter-Landsberg C, Leibfritz D. Multinuclear NMR studies on the energy metabolism of glial and neuronal cells. Dev Neurosci 1993;15:289-98
114. Katz-Brull R, Lenkinski RE, Du Pasquier RA, et al. Elevation of myoinositol is associated with disease containment in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 2004;63:897-900
115. Menon DK, Ainsworth JG, Cox IJ, et al. Proton MR spectroscopy of the brain in AIDS dementia complex. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1992;16:538-42
116. Chong WK, Sweeney B, Wilkinson ID, et al. Proton spectroscopy of the brain in HIV infection: correlation with clinical, immunologic, and MR imaging findings. Radiology 1993;188:119-24
117. Tracey I, Carr CA, Guimaraes AR, et al. Brain choline-containing compounds are elevated in HIV-positive patients before the onset of AIDS dementia complex: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic study. Neurology 1996;46:783-88
118. Jarvik JG, Lenkinski RE, Grossman RI, et al. Proton MR spectroscopy of HIV-infected patients: characterization of abnormalities with imaging and clinical correlation. Radiology 1993;186:739-44
119. Chang L, Ernst T, Tornatore C, et al. Metabolite abnormalities in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neurology 1997;48:836-45
120. Nelson PK, Masters LT, Zagzag D, et al. Angiographic abnormalities in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: an explanation based on neuropathologic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:487-94
121. Iranzo A, Martí-Fábregas J, Domingo P, et al. Absence of thallium-201 brain uptake in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS patients. Acta Neurol Scand 1999;100:102-05
122. Lee VW, Antonacci V, Tilak S, et al. Intracranial mass lesions: sequential thallium and gallium scintigraphy in patients with AIDS. Radiology 1999;211:507-12
123. Port JD, Miseljic S, Lee RR, et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy demonstrating contrast enhancement on MRI and uptake of thallium-201: a case report. Neuroradiology 1999;41:895-98
124. Koralnik IJ. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy revisited: has the disease outgrown its name? Ann Neurol 2006;60:162-73