Nutritional aspects of post exercise skeletal muscle glycogen synthesis in horses: A comparative review

Equine Veterinary Journal

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 274-281

  Waller, A P ^a,b   Lindinger, M I ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

^b OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Electrolytes; Exercise; Fat; Horse; Volatile fatty acid

Indexed keywords

GLYCOGEN;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL FOOD; BIOSYNTHESIS; CARBOHYDRATE DIET; HORSE; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ANIMAL NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; ANIMALS; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; GLYCOGEN; HORSES; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; PHYSICAL CONDITIONING, ANIMAL;

EID: 77953445211     PISSN: 04251644     EISSN: 20423306     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2746/042516409X479603     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Ahlborg, B., Bergstrom, J., Brohult, J., Ekelund, L.G., Hultman, E. and Maschio, G. (1967) Human muscle glycogen content and capacity for prolonged exercise after different diets. Forsvars-medicin 3, 85-99.
2. Alexander, F. and Chowdhury, A.K. (1958) Enzymes in the ileal juice of the horse. Nature 181, 190.
3. Anon (2007) Nutrient Requirements of Horses, National Academies Press, Washington DC. p 341.
4. Argenzio, R.A., Lowe, J.E., Pickard, D.W. and Stevens, C.E. (1974) Digesta passage and water exchange in the equine large intestine. Am. J. Physiol. 226, 1035.
5. Bergstrom, J. and Hultman, E. (1966a) Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: an enhancing factor localized to the muscle cells in man. Nature 210, 309-310.
6. Bergstrom, J. and Hultman, E. (1966b) The effect of exercise on muscle glycogen and electrolytes in normals. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 18, 1-5.
7. Bergstrom, J. and Hultman, E. (1967) Synthesis of muscle glycogen in man after glucose and fructose infusion. Acta Med. Scand. 182, 93-107.
8. Bergstrom, J., Hermansen, J.L., Hultman, E. and Saltin, B. (1967) Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol. Scand. 71, 140-150.
9. Bergstrom, J., Hultman, E. and Roch-Norlund, A.E. (1972) Muscle glycogen synthetase in normal subjects. Basal values, effect of glycogen depletion by exercise and of a carbohydrate-rich diet following exercise. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 29, 231-236.
10. Berneis, K., Ninnis, R., Haussinger, D. and Keller, U. (1999) Effects of hyper- and hypoosmolality on whole body protein and glucose kinetics in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 39, 188-195.
11. Burke, L.M. and Hawley, J.A. (2002) Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 34, 1492-1498.
12. Burke, L.M., Angus, D.J., Cox, G.R., Cummings, N.K., Febbraio, M.A., Gawthorn, K., Hawley, J.A., Minehan, M., Martin, D.T. and Hargreaves, M. (2000) Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling. J. appl. Physiol. 89, 2413-2421.
13. Burnier, P., Tappy, L., Jequier, E., Schneeberger, D. and Chiolero, R. (1992) Metabolic and respiratory effects of infused sodium acetate in healthy human subjects. Am. J. Physiol. Reg. Int. Comp. Physiol. 263, 1271-1276.
14. Carlson, G.P., Ocen, P.O. and Harrold, D.R. (1976) Clinicopathologic alterations in normal and exhausted endurance horses. Theriogenol. 6, 93-104.
15. Cartee, G.D., Young, D.A., Sleeper, M.D., Zierath, J., Wallberg-Henriksson, H. and Holloszy, J.O. (1989) Prolonged increase in insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscle after exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 256, 494-499.
16. Casey, A., Short, A.H., Curtis, S. and Greenhaff, P.L. (1996) The effect of glycogen availability on power output and the metabolic response to repeated bouts of maximal, isokinetic exercise in man. Eur. J. appl. Physiol. 72, 249-255.
17. Christ-Roberts, C.Y. and Mandarino, L.J. (2004) Glycogen synthase: key effect of exercise on insulin action. Exerc. Sport. Sci. Rev. 32, 90-94.
18. Chiolero, R., Mavrocordatos, P., Burnier, P., Cayeux, M.C., Schindler, C., Jequier, E. and Tappy, L. (1993) Effects of infused sodium acetate, sodium lactate, and sodium beta-hydroxybutyrate on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in lean humans. Am. J. clin. Nutr. 58, 608-613.
19. Comline, R.S., Hall, L.W., Hickson, J.C.D., Murillo, A. and Walker, R.G. (1969) Pancreatic secretion in the horse. J. Physiol. 204, 10P-11P.
20. Conlee, R.K., Hammer, R.L., Winder, W.W., Bracken, M.L., Nelson, A.G. and Barnett, D.W. (1990) Glycogen repletion and exercise endurance in rats adapted to a high fat diet. Metabolism 39, 289-294.
21. Costill, D.L. (1988) Carbohydrates for exercise: dietary demands for optimal performance. Int. J. sports Med. 9, 1-18.
22. Costill, D.L., Sherman, W.M., Fink, W.J., Maresh, C., Witten, M. and Miller, J.M. (1981) The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle glycogen resynthesis after strenuous running. Am. J. clin. Nutr. 34, 1831-1836.
23. Davie, A.J., Evans, D.L. and Hodgson, D.R. (1995) Effects of intravenous dextrose infusion on muscle glycogen resynthesis after intense exercise. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 18, 195-198.
24. Decombaz, J., Schmitt, B., Ith, M., Decarli, B., Diem, P., Kreis, R., Hoppeler, H. and Boesch, C. (2001) Postexercise fat intake repletes intramyocellular lipids but no faster in trained than in sedentary subjects. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 281, 760-769.
25. Douen, A.G., Ramlal, T., Klip, A., Young, D.A., Cartee, G.D. and Holloszy, J.O. (1989) Exercise-induced increase in glucose transporters in plasma membranes of rat skeletal muscle. Endocrinol. 124, 449-454.
26. Dunnett, C.E., Marlin, D.J. and Harris, R.C. (2002) Effect of dietary lipid on response to exercise: relationship to metabolic adaptation. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 34, 75-80.
27. Dyer, J., Fernandez-Castano, Merediz E., Salmon, K.S., Proudman, C.J., Edwards, G.B. and Shirazy-Beechey, S.P. (2002) Molecular characterization of carbohydrate digestion and absorption in equine small intestine. Equine vet. J. 34, 349-358.
28. Dyer, J., Al-Rammahi, M., Waterfall, L., Salmon, K.S., Geor, R.J., Bouré, L., Edwards, G.B., Proudman, C.J. and Shirazi-Beechey, S.P. (2009) Adaptive response of equine intestinal Na+/glucose co- transporter (SGLT1) to an increase in dietary soluble carbohydrates. Pflugers Arch. 458, 419-430.
29. Eaton, M.D., Hodgson, D.R. and Evans, D.L. (1995) Effect of diet containing supplementary fat on the capacity for high-intensity exercise. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 18, 353-356.
30. Essen-Gustavsson, B., McMiken, D., Karlstrom, K., Lindholm, A., Persson, S. and Thorton, J. (1989) Muscular adaptation of horses during intensive training and detraining. Equine vet. J. 21, 27-33.
31. Fisher, J.S., Nolte, L.A., Kawanaka, K., Han, D.H., Jones, T.E. and Holloszy, J.O. (2002) Glucose transport rate and glycogen synthase activity both limit skeletal muscle glycogen accumulation. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 282, 1214-1221.
32. Fushimi, T. and Sato, Y. (2005) Effect of acetic acid feeding on the circadian changes in glycogen and metabolites of glucose and lipid in liver and skeletal muscle in rats. Br. J. Nutr. 94, 714-719.
33. Fushimi, T., Tayama, K., Fukaya, M., Kitakoshi, K., Nakai, N., Tsukamoto, Y. and Sato, Y. (2001) Acetic acid feeding enhances glycogen repletion in liver and skeletal muscle of rats. J. Nutr. 131, 1973-1977.
34. Fushimi, T., Tayama, K., Fukaya, M., Kitakoshi, K., Nakai, N., Tsukamoto, Y. and Sato, Y. (2002) The efficacy of acetic acid for glycogen repletion in rat skeletal muscle after exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 23, 218-222.
35. Garetto, L.P., Richter, E.A., Goodman, M.N. and Ruderman, B.B. (1984) Enhanced muscle glucose metabolism after exercise in the rat: the two phases. Am. J. Physiol. 246, E471-475.
36. Garner, H.E., Coffman, J.R., Hahn, A.W. and Salem, C. (1975) Equine laminitis of alimentary origin: an experimental model. Am. J. vet. Res. 36, 441-445.
37. Geor, R.J., Larsen, L., Waterfall, H.L., Stewart-Hunt, L. and McCutcheon, L.J. (2006) Route of carbohydrate administration affects early post exercise muscle glycogen storage in horses. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 36, 590-595.
38. Glinsky, M.J., Smith, R.M., Spires, H.R. and Davis, C.L. (1976) Measurement of volatile fatty acid production rates in the cecum of the pony. J. anim. Sci. 42, 1465-1470.
39. Graham-Thiers, P.M., Kronfeld, D.S., Kline, K.A. and Sklan, D.J. (2001) Dietary protein restriction and fat supplementation diminish the acidogenic effect of exercise during repeated sprints in horses. J. Nutr. 131, 1959-1964.
40. Guthrie, A.J. and Lund, R.J. (1998) Thermoregulation. base mechanisms and hyperthermia. Vet. Clin. N. Am.: Equine Pract. 14, 45-59.
41. Hargreaves, M. (1991) Carbohydrates and exercise. J. Sports Sci. 9, 17-28.
42. Haussinger, D. (1996) The role of cellular hydration in the regulation of cell function. Biochem. J. 313, 697-710.
43. Henderson, G.C., Fattor, J.A., Horning, M.A., Faghihnia, N., Johnson, M.L., Mau, T.L., Luke-Zeitoun, M. and Brooks, G.A. (2007) Lipolysis and fatty acid metabolism in men and women during the postexercise recovery period. J. Physiol. 584, 963-981.
44. Hintz, H.F., Schryver, H.F. and Stevens, C.E. (1978) Digestion and absorption in the hindgut of nonruminant herbivores. J. anim. Sci. 46, 1803-1807.
45. Hoffman, R.M., Boston, R.C., Stefanovski, D., Kronfeld, D.S. and Harris, P.A. (2003) Obesity and diet affect glucose dynamics and insulin sensitivity in Thoroughbred geldings. J. anim. Sci. 81, 2333-2342.
46. Hoffman, R.M., Wilson, J.A., Kronfeld, D.S., Cooper, W.L., Lawrence, L.A., Sklan, D. and Harris, P.A. (2001) Hydrolysable carbohydrates in pasture, hay, and horse feeds: direct assay and seasonal variation. J. anim. Sci. 79, 500-506.
47. Hoffman, R.M., Hess, T.M., Williams, C.A., Kronfeld, D.S., Griewe-Crandell, K.M., Waldron, J.E., Graham-Thiers, P.M., Gay, L.S., Splan, R.K., Saker, K.E. and Harris, P.A. (2002) Speed associated with plasma pH, oxygen content, total protein and urea in an 80km race. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 34, 39-43.
48. Howarth, K.R., Moreau, N.A., Phillips, S.M. and Gibala, M.J. (2009) Co-ingestion of protein with carbohydrate during recovery from endurance exercise stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis in humans. J. appl. Physiol. 106, 1394-1402.
49. Hyyppa, S., Rasanen, L.A. and Poso, A.R. (1997) Resynthesis of glycogen in skeletal muscle from Standardbred trotters after repeated bouts of exercise. Am. J. vet. Res. 58, 162-166.
50. Hyyppa, S., Saastamoinen, M. and Poso, A.R. (1999) Effect of a post-exercise fat-supplemented diet on muscle glycogen repletion. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 30, 493-498.
51. Ivy, J.L. and Kuo, C.H. (1998) Regulation of Glut 4 protein and glycogen synthase during muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 162, 295-304.
52. Ivy, J.L., Ding, Z., Hwang, H., Cialdella-Kam, L.C. and Morrison, P.J. (2008) Post exercise carbohydrate-protein supplementation: phosphorylation of muscle proteins involved in glycogen synthesis and protein translation. Amino Acids 35, 89-97.
53. Ivy, J.L., Goforth, H.W., Damon, B.M., McCauley, T.R., Parsons, E.C. and Price, T.B. (2002) Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement. J. appl. Physiol. 93, 1337-1344.
54. Jansson, A. and Dahlborn, K. (1999) Effects of feeding frequency and voluntary salt intake on fluid and electrolyte regulation in athletic horses. J. appl. Physiol. 86, 1610-1616.
55. Jentjens, R. and Jeukendrup, A.E. (2003) Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery. Sports Med. 33, 117-144.
56. Jentjens R.L.P.G., VanLoon, L.J.C., Mann, C.H., Wagenmakers, A.J.M. and Jeukendrup, A.E. (2001) Addition of protein and amino acids to carbohydrates does not enhance postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis. J. appl. Physiol. 91, 839-846.
57. Johnson, P.J. (1998) Physiology of body fluids in the horse. Vet. Clin. N. Am.: Equine Pract. 14, 1-22.
58. Jose-Cunilleras, E. and Hinchcliff, K.W. (2004) Carbohydrate metabolism in exercising horses. Equine Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 1, 23-32.
59. Jose-Cunilleras, E., Hayes, K.A., Toribio, R.E., Mathes, L.E. and Hinchcliff, K.W. (2005) Expression of equine glucose transporter type 4 in skeletal muscle after glycogen depleting exercise. Am. J. vet. Res. 66, 379-385.
60. Jose-Cunilleras, E., Hinchcliff, K.W., Lacombe, V.A., Sams, R.A., Kohn, C.W., Taylor, L.E. and Devor, S.T. (2006) Ingestion of starch-rich meals after exercise increases glucose kinetics but fails to enhance muscle glycogen replenishment in horses. Vet. J. 171, 468-477.
61. Karlsson, J. and Saltin, B. (1971) Diet, muscle glycogen, and endurance performance. Appl. Physiol. 31, 203-206.
62. Keller, U., Szinnai, G., Bilz, S. and Berneis, K. (2003) Effects of changes in hydration on protein, glucose and lipid metabolism in man: impact on health. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, S69-74.
63. Kienzle, E., Radicke, S., Landes, E., Kleffken, D., Illenseer, M. and Meyer, H. (1994) Activity of amylase in gastrointestinal tract of horse. J. anim. Physiol. anim. Nutr. 72, 234-241.
64. Kimber, N.E., Heigenhauser, G.J.F., Spriet, L.L. and Dyck, D.J. (2003) Skeletal muscle fat and carbohydrate metabolism during recovery from glycogen-depleting exercise in humans. J. Physiol. 548, 919-927.
65. Kraniou, G., Cameron-Smith, D. and Hargreaves, M. (2004) Effect of short-term training on GLUT-4 mRNA and protein expression in human skeletal muscle. Expt. Physiol. 89, 559-563.
66. Lacombe, V.A., Hinchcliff, K.W. and Taylor, L.E. (2003a) Interactions of substrate availability, exercise performance, and nutrition with muscle glycogen metabolism in horses. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 223, 1576-1585.
67. Lacombe, V.A., Hinchcliff, K.W. and Devor, S.T. (2003b) Effects of exercise and glucose administration on content of insulin-sensitive glucose transporter in equine skeletal muscle. Am. J. vet. Res. 64, 1500-1506.
68. Lacombe, V., Hinchcliff, K.W., Geor, R.J. and Lauderdale, M.A. (1999) Exercise that induces substantial muscle glycogen depletion impairs subsequent anaerobic capacity. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 30, 293-297.
69. Lacombe, V., Hinchcliff, K.W., Geor, R.J. and Baskin, C.E. (2001) Muscle glycogen depletion and subsequent replenishment affect anaerobic capacity of horses. J. appl. Physiol. 91, 1782-1790.
70. Lacombe, V., Hinchcliff, K.W., Kohn, C.W., Devor, S.T. and Taylor, L.E. (2004) Effects of feeding meals with various soluble carbohydrate content on muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise in horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 65, 916-923.
71. Lindinger, M.I. and Waller, A. (2008) Muscle and blood acid-base physiology during exercise and in response to training. In: Equine Exercise Physiology, Eds: K.W. Hinchcliff, R.J. Geor and A.J. Kaneps, Elsevier, New York. pp 350-381.
72. Low, A.Y., Rennie, M.J. and Taylor, P.M. (1996) Modulation of glycogen synthesis in rat skeletal muscle by changes in cell volume. J. Physiol. 495, 299-303.
73. Maughan, R.J. and Lindinger, M.I. (1995) Preparing for and competeing in the heat: the human perspective. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 20, 8-15.
74. Maughan, R.J., Owen, J.H., Shirreffs, S.M. and Leiper, J.B. (1994) Post-exercise rehydration in man: effects of electrolyte addition to ingested fluids. Eur. J. appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 69, 209-215.
75. McCutcheon, L.J., Geor, R.J., Hare, M.J., Ecker, G.L. and Lindinger, M.I. (1995) Sweating rate and sweat composition during exercise and recovery in ambient heat and humidity. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 20, 153-157.
76. McKeever, K.H. (1998) Effect of exercise on fluid balance and renal function in horses. Vet. Clin. N. Am.: Equine Pract. 14, 23-44.
77. McKenzie, E., Valberg, S.J. and Pagan, J.D. (2003) Nutritional management of exertional rhabdomyolysis. In: Current Therapy in Equine Medicine, Ed: N. Robinson, W.B. Saunders, St Louis. pp 727-737.
78. Meyers, M.C., Potter, G.D., Evans, J.W., Greene, L.W. and Crouse, S.F. (1989) Physiologic and metabolic response of exercising horses to added dietary fat. J. equine vet. Sci. 9, 218-223.
79. Miller-Graber, P.A., Lawrence, L.M., Foreman, J.H., Bump, K.D., Fisher, M.G. and Kurcz, E.V. (1991) Dietary protein level and energy metabolism during treadmill exercise in horses. J. Nutr. 121, 1462-1469.
80. Murray, M.J. (1994) Gastric ulcers in adult horses. Comp. cont. Educ. pract. vet. 16, 792-797.
81. Neufer, P.D., Sawka, M.N., Young, A.J., Quigley, M.D., Latzka, W.A. and Levine, L. (1991) Hypohydration does not impair skeletal muscle glycogen resynthesis after exercise. J. appl. Physiol. 70, 1490-1494.
82. Nielson, J.N., Derave, W., Kristiansen, S., Ralston, E., Ploug, T. and Richter, E.A. (2001) Glycogen synthase localization and activity in rat skeletal muscle is strongly dependent on glycogen content. J. Physiol. 531, 757-769.
83. Nout, Y.S., Hinchcliff, K.W., Jose-Cuinilleras, E., Dearth, L.R., Sivko, G.S. and DeWille, J.W. (2003) Effect of moderate intensity exercise immediately followed by induced hyperglycemia on gene expression and content of the glucose transporter-4 protein in skeletal muscle of horses. Am. J. vet. Res. 64, 1401-1408.
84. Oldham, S.L., Potter, G.D., Evans, J.W., Smith, S.B., Taylor, T.S. and Barnes, W.S. (1990) Storage and mobilization of muscle glycogen in exercising horses fed a fat supplemented diet. J. equine vet. Sci. 10, 353-359.
85. Pagan, J.D., Geor, R.J., Harris, P.A., Hoekstra, K., Gardner, S., Hudson, C. and Prince, A. (2002) Effects of fat adaptation on glucose kinetics and substrate oxidation during low-intensity exercise. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 34, 33-38.
86. Peak, M., Al-Habori, M. and Aguis, L. (1992) Regulation of glycogen synthesis and glycolysis by insulin, pH and cell volume. Biochem. J. 282, 797-805.
87. Phinney, S.D., Bistrian, B.R., Evans, W.J., Gervino, E. and Blackburn, G.L. (1983) The human metabolic response to chronic ketosis without caloric restriction: preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation. Metabolism 32, 769-776.
88. Poso, R.A. and Hyyppa, S. (1999) Metabolic and hormonal changes after exercise in relation to muscle glycogen concentrations. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 30, 332-336.
89. Pratt, S.E., Geor, R.J., Spriet, L.L. and McCutcheon, L.J. (2007) Time course of insulin sensitivity and skeletal muscle glycogen synthase activity after a single bout of exercise in horses. J. appl. Physiol. 103, 1063-1069.
90. Price, T.B., Rothman, D.L., Taylor, R., Avison, M.J., Shulman, G.I. and Shulman, R.G. (1994) Human muscle glycogen resynthesis after exercise: insulin-dependent and -independent phases. J. appl. Physiol. 76, 104-111.
91. Randle, P.J., England, P.J. and Denton, R.M. (1970) Control of the tricarboxylate cycle and its interactions with glycolysis during acetate utilization in rat heart. Biochem. J. 117, 677-695.
92. Reed, M.J., Brozinick, J.T., Lee, M.C. and Ivy, J.L. (1989) Muscle glycogen storage postexercise: effect of mode of carbohydrate administration. J. appl. Physiol. 66, 720-726.
93. Ren, J.M., Marshall, B.A., Gulve, E.A., Gao, J., Johnson, D.W., Holloszy, J.O. and Muekler, M.M. (1993) Evidence from transgenic mice that glucose transport is rate limiting for glycogen deposition and glycolysis in skeletal muscle. J. biol. Chem. 268, 26113-26115.
94. Richards, R.H., Vreman, H.J., Zager, P., Feldman, C., Blaschke, T. and Weiner, M.W. (1982) Acetate metabolism in normal human subjects. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2, 47-57.
95. Robergs, R.A. (1991) Nutrition and exercise determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1, 307-337.
96. Sawka, M.N., Gonzalez, R.R., Young, A.J., Muza, S.R., Pandolf, K.B., Latzka, W.A., Dennis, R.C. and Valeri, C.R. (1988) Polycythemia and hydration: effects on thermoregulation and blood volume during exercise-heat stress. Am. J. Physiol. 255, 456-463.
97. Smith, G.I., Jeukendrup, A.E. and Ball, D. (2007) Sodium acetate induces a metabolic alkalosis but not the increase in fatty acid oxidation observed following bicarbonate ingestion in humans. J. Nutr. 137, 1750-1756.
98. Snow, D.H. and Harris, R.C. (1991) Effects of daily exercise on muscle glycogen in the Thoroughbred racehorse. In: Equine Exercise Physiology 3, Eds: S.G.B. Persson, A. Lindholm and L.B. Jeffcott, ICEEP Publications, Davis. pp 299-304.
99. Snow, D.H., Baxter, P. and Rose, R.J. (1981) Muscle fibre composition and glycogen depletion in horses competing in an endurance ride. Vet. Rec. 108, 374-378.
100. Stewart-Hunt, L., Geor, R.J. and McCutcheon, L.J. (2006) Effect of short-term training on insulin sensitivity and skeletal muscle glucose metabolism in Standardbred horses. Equine vet. J., Suppl. 36, 226-232.
101. Stuart, C.A., Yin, D., Howell, M.E., Dykes, R.J., Laffan, J.J. and Ferranda, A.A. (2006) Hexase transporter mRNAs for GLUT4, GLUT5, and GLUT12 predominate in human muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 291, E1067-1073.
102. Thorell, A., Hirshman, M.F., Nygren, J., Jorfeldt, L., Wojtaszewski, J.F., Dufresne, S.D., Horton, E.S., Ljungqvist, O. and Goodyear, L.J. (1999) Exercise and insulin cause GLUT-4 translocation in human skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 277, 733-741.
103. Tinker, M.K., White, N.A., Lessard, P., Thatcher, C.D., Pelzer, K.D., Davis, B. and Carmel, D.K. (1997) Prospective study of equine colic risk factors. Equine vet. J. 29, 454-458.
104. Topliff, D.R., Potter, G.D. and Dutson, T.R. (1983) Diet manipulation and muscle glycogen in the equine. In: Proceedings of the 8th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, Savoy. pp 119-124.
105. Topliff, D.R., Potter, G.D. and Kreider, J.L. (1985) Diet manipulation, muscle glycogen metabolism and anaerobic work performance in the equine. In: Proceedings of 9th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, American Society of Animal Science, Champaign. pp 224-229.
106. Van Hall, G., Saris, W.H.M., Van De Schoor, P.A. and Wagenmakers, A.J. (2000) The effect of free glutamine and peptide ingestion on the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis in man. Int. J. sports Med. 21, 25-30.
107. Van Loon, L.J.C., Saris, W.H.M., Kruijshoop, M. and Wagenmakers, A.J. (2000) Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydolysate mixtures. Am. J. clin. Nutr. 72, 106-111.
108. Walker, J.A., Krehbiel, C.R., Harmon, D.L., St Jean, G., Croom, W.J. Jr. and Hagler, W.M. Jr. (1994) Effects of slaframine and 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine (4DAMP) on pancreatic exocrine secretion in the bovine. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 72, 34-44.
109. Waller, A., Armstrong, S., Smithurst, K-J. and Lindinger, M.I. (2004) Effects of diet, feeding and daily variation on acid-base balance in horses. Equine Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 1, 153-165.
110. Waller, A.P., Geor, R.J., Spriet, L.L., Heigenhauser, G.J.F. and Lindinger, M.I. (2009a) Oral acetate supplementation after prolonged moderate intensity exercise enhances early muscle glycogen resynthesis in horses. Exp. Physiol. 94, 888-898.
111. Waller, A.P., Heigenhauser, G.J., Geor, R.J., Spriet, L.L. and Lindinger, M.I. (2009b) Fluid and electrolyte supplementation after prolonged moderate-intensity exercise enhances glycogen resynthesis in Standardbred horses. J. appl. Physiol. 106, 91-100.
112. Williamson, J.R. (1964) Effects of insulin and starvation on the metabolism of acetate and pyruvate by the perfused rat heart. Biochem. J. 93, 97-106.
113. Williamson, J.R. (1965) Glycolytic control mechanisms I. Inhibition of glycolysis by acetate and pyruvate in the isolated, perfused rat heart. J. biol. Chem. 240, 2308-2321.
114. Zawadzki, K.M., Yaspelkis, 3rd, B.B. and Ivy, J.L. (1992) Carbohydrate-protein complex increased the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. J. appl. Physiol. 72, 1854-1859.