West nile virus

Clinics in Laboratory Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 47-65

  Rossi, Shannan L ^a   Ross, Ted M ^a   Evans, Jared D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Diagnosis; Flavivirus; Infection; Pathogenesis; West Nile virus

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CHIMERIVAX; DNA VACCINE; INACTIVATED VIRUS VACCINE; INTERFERON; RECOMBITEK; RIBAVIRIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; WEST NILE VACCINE; WEST NILE VIRUS DENGUE 4 VACCINE; WNV DENV4 VACCINE;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; BACTERIAL MENINGITIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG EFFICACY; ENCEPHALITIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; INCIDENCE; INFECTION PREVENTION; INNATE IMMUNITY; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PHYLOGENY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VACCINATION; VIRAL GENETICS; VIROLOGY; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS ISOLATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS TRANSCRIPTION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WEST NILE FLAVIVIRUS;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; PHYLOGENY; VACCINATION; WEST NILE FEVER; WEST NILE VIRUS;

EID: 77953350230     PISSN: 02722712     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cll.2009.10.006     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Gould E.A., Solomon T. Pathogenic flaviviruses. Lancet 2008, 371(9611):500-509.
2. Lindenbach B.D., Rice C.M. Flaviviridae: the viruses and their replication. Fields virology 2001, 991-1041. Lippincott Williams, Wilkins, Philadelphia. HP, D.M. Knipe (Eds.).
3. Schlesinger J.J. Flavivirus nonstructural protein NS1: complementary surprises. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006, 103(50):18879-18880.
4. Leung J.Y., Pijlman G.P., Kondratieva N., et al. Role of nonstructural protein NS2A in flavivirus assembly. J Virol 2008, 82(10):4731-4741.
5. Mackenzie J.M., Khromykh A.A., Jones M.K., et al. Subcellular localization and some biochemical properties of the flavivirus Kunjin nonstructural proteins NS2A and NS4A. Virology 1998, 245(2):203-215.
6. Egloff M.P., Benarroch D., Selisko B., et al. An RNA cap (nucleoside-2'-O-)-methyltransferase in the flavivirus RNA polymerase NS5: crystal structure and functional characterization. EMBO J 2002, 21(11):2757-2768.
7. Khromykh A.A., Kenney M.T., Westaway E.G. Trans-Complementation of flavivirus RNA polymerase gene NS5 by using Kunjin virus replicon-expressing BHK cells. J Virol 1998, 72(9):7270-7279.
8. Speight G., Coia G., Parker M.D., et al. Gene mapping and positive identification of the non-structural proteins NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4B and NS5 of the flavivirus Kunjin and their cleavage sites. J Gen Virol 1988, 69(Pt 1):23-34.
9. Evans J.D., Seeger C. Differential effects of mutations in NS4B on West Nile virus replication and inhibition of interferon signaling. J Virol 2007, 81(21):11809-11816.
10. Liu W.J., Wang X.J., Mokhonov V.V., et al. Inhibition of interferon signaling by the New York 99 strain and Kunjin subtype of West Nile virus involves blockage of STAT1 and STAT2 activation by nonstructural proteins. J Virol 2005, 79(3):1934-1942.
11. Munoz-Jordan J.L., Laurent-Rolle M., Ashour J., et al. Inhibition of alpha/beta interferon signaling by the NS4B protein of flaviviruses. J Virol 2005, 79(13):8004-8013.
12. Munoz-Jordan J.L., Sánchez-Burgos G.G., Laurent-Rolle M., et al. Inhibition of interferon signaling by dengue virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003, 100(24):14333-14338.
13. Khromykh A.A., Sedlak P.L., Westaway E.G. cis- and trans-acting elements in flavivirus RNA replication. J Virol 2000, 74(7):3253-3263.
14. Clyde K., Kyle J.L., Harris E. Recent advances in deciphering viral and host determinants of dengue virus replication and pathogenesis. J Virol 2006, 80(23):11418-11431.
15. Chu J.J., Ng M.L. Interaction of West Nile virus with alpha v beta 3 integrin mediates virus entry into cells. J Biol Chem 2004, 279(52):54533-54541.
16. Chu J.J., Ng M.L. Infectious entry of West Nile virus occurs through a clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway. J Virol 2004, 78(19):10543-10555.
17. Medigeshi G.R., Hirsch A.J., Streblow D.N., et al. West Nile virus entry requires cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains and is independent of alphavbeta3 integrin. J Virol 2008, 82(11):5212-5219.
18. Modis Y., Ogata S., Clements D., et al. Structure of the dengue virus envelope protein after membrane fusion. Nature 2004, 427(6972):313-319.
19. Mukhopadhyay S., Kuhn R.J., Rossmann M.G. A structural perspective of the flavivirus life cycle. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005, 3(1):13-22.
20. Mackenzie J.M., Westaway E.G. Assembly and maturation of the flavivirus Kunjin virus appear to occur in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and along the secretory pathway, respectively. J Virol 2001, 75(22):10787-10799.
21. Westaway E.G., Ng M.L. Replication of flaviviruses: separation of membrane translation sites of Kunjin virus proteins and of cell proteins. Virology 1980, 106(1):107-122.
22. Westaway E.G., Mackenzie J.M., Khromykh A.A. Replication and gene function in Kunjin virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002, 267:323-351.
23. Westaway E.G., Mackenzie J.M., Kenney M.T., et al. Ultrastructure of Kunjin virus-infected cells: colocalization of NS1 and NS3 with double-stranded RNA, and of NS2B with NS3, in virus-induced membrane structures. J Virol 1997, 71(9):6650-6661.
24. Ng M.L., Pedersen J.S., Toh B.H., et al. Immunofluorescent sites in Vero cells infected with the flavivirus Kunjin. Arch Virol 1983, 78(3-4):177-190.
25. Bartenschlager R., Miller S. Molecular aspects of Dengue virus replication. Future Microbiol 2008, 3:155-165.
26. Welsch S., Miller S., Romero-Brey I., et al. Composition and three-dimensional architecture of the dengue virus replication and assembly sites. Cell Host Microbe 2009, 5(4):365-375.
27. Miyanari Y., Atsuzawa K., Usuda N., et al. The lipid droplet is an important organelle for hepatitis C virus production. Nat Cell Biol 2007, 9(9):1089-1097.
28. Miyanari Y., Hijikata M., Yamaji M., et al. Hepatitis C virus non-structural proteins in the probable membranous compartment function in viral genome replication. J Biol Chem 2003, 278(50):50301-50308.
29. Bondre V.P., Jadi R.S., Mishra A.C., et al. West Nile virus isolates from India: evidence for a distinct genetic lineage. J Gen Virol 2007, 88(Pt 3):875-884.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Intrauterine West Nile virus infection-New York, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002, 51(50):1135-1136.
31. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Intrauterine West Nile virus infection-New York, 2002. JAMA 2003, 289(3):295-296.
32. Alpert S.G., Fergerson J., Noel L.P. Intrauterine West Nile virus: ocular and systemic findings. Am J Ophthalmol 2003, 136(4):733-735.
33. Hinckley A.F., O'Leary D.R., Hayes E.B. Transmission of West Nile virus through human breast milk seems to be rare. Pediatrics 2007, 119(3):e666-e671.
34. O'Leary D.R., Kuhn S., Kniss K.L., et al. Birth outcomes following West Nile Virus infection of pregnant women in the United States: 2003-2004. Pediatrics 2006, 117(3):e537-e545.
35. Petersen L.R., Marfin A.A. West Nile virus: a primer for the clinician. Ann Intern Med 2002, 137(3):173-179.
36. Iwamoto M., Jernigan D.B., Guasch A., et al. Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2003, 348(22):2196-2203.
37. Biggerstaff B.J., Petersen L.R. Estimated risk of transmission of the West Nile virus through blood transfusion in the US, 2002. Transfusion 2003, 43(8):1007-1017.
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Detection of West Nile virus in blood donations-United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003, 52(32):769-772.
39. Smithburn K.C., Hughes T.P., Burke A.W., et al. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1940, 20:471-492.
40. Murgue B., Murri S., Triki H., et al. West Nile in the Mediterranean basin: 1950-2000. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001, 951:117-126.
41. Hayes C.G. West Nile virus: Uganda, 1937, to New York City, 1999. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001, 951:25-37.
42. Bin H., Grossman Z., Pokamunski S., et al. West Nile fever in Israel 1999-2000: from geese to humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001, 951:127-142.
43. Platonov A.E., Shipulin G.A., Shipulina O.Y., et al. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection, Volgograd Region, Russia, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001, 7(1):128-132.
44. Tsai T.F., Popovici F., Cernescu C., et al. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet 1998, 352(9130):767-771.
45. Lanciotti R.S., Roehrig J.T., Deubel V., et al. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 1999, 286(5448):2333-2337.
46. Blitvich B.J. Transmission dynamics and changing epidemiology of West Nile virus. Anim Health Res Rev 2008, 9(1):71-86.
47. Plantonov A.E., Fedorova M.V., Karan L.S., et al. Epidemiology of West Nile infection in Volgograd, Russia, in relation to climate change and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) bionomics. Parasitol Res 2008, 103(Suppl 1):S45-53.
48. Venter M., Human S., Zaayman D., et al. Lineage 2 West Nile virus as cause of fatal neurologic disease in horses, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dist 2009, 15(6):877-884.
49. Krisztalovics K., Ferenczi E., Molnar Z., et al. West Nile virus infections in Hungary, August-September 2008. Euro Surveill 2008, 13(45). pii, 19030.
50. Popovici F., Sarbu A., Nicolae O., et al. West Nile fever in a patient in Romania, August 2008: case report. Euro Surveill 2008, 13(39). pii, 18989.
51. Rossini G., Cavrini F., Pierro A., et al. First human case of West Nile virus neuroinvasive infection in Italy, September 2008-case report. Euro Surveill 2008, 13(41). pii, 19002.
52. Mostashari F., Bunning M.L., Kitsutani P.T., et al. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey. Lancet 2001, 358(9278):261-264.
53. Brilla R., Block M., Geremia G., et al. Clinical and neuroradiologic features of 39 consecutive cases of West Nile Virus meningoencephalitis. J Neurol Sci 2004, 220(1-2):37-40.
54. Hayes E.B., Sejvar J.J., Zaki S.R., et al. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11(8):1174-1179.
55. Petersen L.R., Roehrig J.T., Hughes J.M. West Nile virus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2002, 347(16):1225-1226.
56. Tyler K.L. West Nile virus infection in the United States. Arch Neurol 2004, 61(8):1190-1195.
57. Campbell G.L., Marfin A.A., Lanciotti R.S., et al. West Nile virus. Lancet Infect Dis 2002, 2(9):519-529.
58. Byrne S., Halliday G.M., Johnston L.J., et al. Interleukin-1 beta but not tumor necrosis factor is involved in West Nile virus-induced Langerhans cell migration from the skin in C57BL/6 mice. J Invest Dermatol 2001, 117(3):702-709.
59. Johnston L., Halliday G.M., King N.J. Langerhans cells migrate to local lymph nodes following cutaneous infection with an arbovirus. J Invest Dermatol 2000, 114(3):560-568.
60. Busch M.P., Kleinman S.H., Tobler L.H., et al. Virus and antibody dynamics in acute West Nile virus infection. J Infect Dis 2008, 198(7):984-993.
61. Tonry J.H., Xiao S.Y., Siirin M., et al. Persistent shedding of West Nile virus in urine of experimentally infected hamsters. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005, 72(3):320-324.
62. Tesh R.B., Siirin M., Guzman H., et al. Persistent West Nile virus infection in the golden hamster: studies on its mechanism and possible implications for other flavivirus infections. J Infect Dis 2005, 192(2):287-295.
63. Ding X., Wu X., Duan T., et al. Nucleotide and amino acid changes in West Nile virus strains exhibiting renal tropism in hamsters. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005, 73(4):803-807.
64. Samuel M.A., Diamond M.S. Alpha/beta interferon protects against lethal West Nile virus infection by restricting cellular tropism and enhancing neuronal survival. J Virol 2005, 79(21):13350-13361.
65. Arjona A., Foellmer H.G., Town T., et al. Abrogation of macrophage migration inhibitory factor decreases West Nile virus lethality by limiting viral neuroinvasion. J Clin Invest 2007, 117(10):3059-3066.
66. Dai J., Wang P., Bai F., et al. Icam-1 participates in the entry of West Nile virus into the central nervous system. J Virol 2008, 82(8):4164-4168.
67. Wang P., Dai J., Bai F., et al. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 facilitates West Nile virus entry into the brain. J Virol 2008, 82(18):8978-8985.
68. Wang S., Welte T., McGargill M., et al. Drak2 contributes to West Nile virus entry into the brain and lethal encephalitis. J Immunol 2008, 181(3):2084-2091.
69. Verma S., Lo Y., Chapagain M., et al. West Nile virus infection modulates human brain microvascular endothelial cells tight junction proteins and cell adhesion molecules: transmigration across the in vitro blood-brain barrier. Virology 2009, 385(2):425-433.
70. Wang T., Town T., Alexopoulou L., et al. Toll-like receptor 3 mediates West Nile virus entry into the brain causing lethal encephalitis. Nat Med 2004, 10(12):1366-1373.
71. Diamond M.S., Klein R.S. West Nile virus: crossing the blood-brain barrier. Nat Med 2004, 10(12):1294-1295.
72. Garcia-Tapia D., Hassett D.E., Mitchell W.J., et al. West Nile virus encephalitis: sequential histopathological and immunological events in a murine model of infection. J Neurovirol 2007, 13(2):130-138.
73. Morrey J.D., Olsen A.L., Siddharthan V., et al. Increased blood-brain barrier permeability is not a primary determinant for lethality of West Nile virus infection in rodents. J Gen Virol 2008, 89(Pt 2):467-473.
74. Samuel M.A., Wang H., Siddharthan V., et al. Axonal transport mediates West Nile virus entry into the central nervous system and induces acute flaccid paralysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007, 104(43):17140-17145.
75. Tyler K.L., Pape J., Goody R.J., et al. CSF findings in 250 patients with serologically confirmed West Nile virus meningitis and encephalitis. Neurology 2006, 66(3):361-365.
76. Petropoulou K.A., Gordon S.M., Prayson R.A., et al. West Nile virus meningoencephalitis: MR imaging findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005, 26(8):1986-1995.
77. Ali M., Safriel Y., Sohi J., et al. West Nile virus infection: MR imaging findings in the nervous system. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005, 26(2):289-297.
78. Rossi S.L., Zhao Q., O'Donnell V.K., et al. Adaptation of West Nile virus replicons to cells in culture and use of replicon-bearing cells to probe antiviral action. Virology 2005, 331(2):457-470.
79. Anderson J., Rahal J.J. Efficacy of interferon alpha-2b and ribavirin against West Nile virus in vitro. Emerg Infect Dis 2002, 8(1):107-108.
80. Chan-Tack K.M., Forrest G. Failure of interferon alpha-2b in a patient with West Nile virus meningoencephalitis and acute flaccid paralysis. Scand J Infect Dis 2005, 37(11-12):944-946.
81. Chowers M.Y., Lang R., Nassar F., et al. Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001, 7(4):675-678.
82. Kalil A.C., Devetten M.P., Singh S., et al. Use of interferon-alpha in patients with West Nile encephalitis: report of 2 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40(5):764-766.
83. Sayao A.L., Suchowersky O., Al-Khathaami A., et al. Calgary experience with West Nile virus neurological syndrome during the late summer of 2003. Can J Neurol Sci 2004, 31(2):194-203.
84. Weiss D., Carr D., Kellachan J., et al. Clinical findings of West Nile virus infection in hospitalized patients, New York and New Jersey, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001, 7(4):654-658.
85. Morrey J.D., Taro B.S., Siddharthan V., et al. Efficacy of orally administered T-705 pyrazine analog on lethal West Nile virus infection in rodents. Antiviral Res 2008, 80(3):377-379.
86. Ben-Nathan D., Gershoni-Yahalom O., Samina I., et al. Using high titer West Nile intravenous immunoglobulin from selected Israeli donors for treatment of West Nile virus infection. BMC Infect Dis 2009, 9:18.
87. Saquib R., Randall H., Chandrakantan A., et al. West Nile virus encephalitis in a renal transplant recipient: the role of intravenous immunoglobulin. Am J Kidney Dis 2008, 52(5):e19-e21.
88. Sejvar J.J. The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44(12):1617-1624.
89. Pogodina V.V., Frolova M.P., Malenko G.V., et al. Study on West Nile virus persistence in monkeys. Arch Virol 1983, 75(1-2):71-86.
90. Siddharthan V., Wang H., Motter N.E., et al. Persistent West Nile virus associated with a neurological sequela in hamsters identified by motor unit number estimation. J Virol 2009, 83(9):4251-4261.
91. Penn R.G., Guarner J., Sejvar J.J., et al. Persistent neuroinvasive West Nile virus infection in an immunocompromised patient. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42(5):680-683.
92. Brenner W., Storch G., Buller R., et al. West Nile Virus encephalopathy in an allogeneic stem cell transplant recipient: use of quantitative PCR for diagnosis and assessment of viral clearance. Bone Marrow Transplant 2005, 36(4):369-370.
93. Kapoor H., Signs K., Somsel P., et al. Persistence of West Nile Virus (WNV) IgM antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with CNS disease. J Clin Virol 2004, 31(4):289-291.
94. Prince H.E., Tobler L.H., Yeh C., et al. Persistence of West Nile virus-specific antibodies in viremic blood donors. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007, 14(9):1228-1230.
95. Roehrig J.T., Nash D., Maldin B., et al. Persistence of virus-reactive serum immunoglobulin m antibody in confirmed west nile virus encephalitis cases. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9(3):376-379.
96. Rossi S.L., Fayzulin R., Dewsbury N., et al. Mutations in West Nile virus nonstructural proteins that facilitate replicon persistence in vitro attenuate virus replication in vitro and in vivo. Virology 2007, 364(1):184-195.
97. Keller B.C., Fredericksen B.L., Samuel M.A., et al. Resistance to alpha/beta interferon is a determinant of West Nile virus replication fitness and virulence. J Virol 2006, 80(19):9424-9434.
98. Shrestha B., Diamond M.S. Role of CD8+ T cells in control of West Nile virus infection. J Virol 2004, 78(15):8312-8321.
99. Shrestha B., Samuel M.A., Diamond M.S. CD8+ T cells require perforin to clear West Nile virus from infected neurons. J Virol 2006, 80(1):119-129.
100. Shrestha B., Wang T., Samuel M.A., et al. Gamma interferon plays a crucial early antiviral role in protection against West Nile virus infection. J Virol 2006, 80(11):5338-5348.
101. Sitati E.M., Diamond M.S. CD4+ T-cell responses are required for clearance of West Nile virus from the central nervous system. J Virol 2006, 80(24):12060-12069.
102. Wang T., Scully E., Yin Z., et al. IFN-gamma-producing gamma delta T cells help control murine West Nile virus infection. J Immunol 2003, 171(5):2524-2531.
103. Wang Y., Lobigs M., Lee E., et al. CD8+ T cells mediate recovery and immunopathology in West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 2003, 77(24):13323-13334.
104. Diamond M.S., Shrestha B., Marri A., et al. B cells and antibody play critical roles in the immediate defense of disseminated infection by West Nile encephalitis virus. J Virol 2003, 77(4):2578-2586.
105. Klein R.S., Lin E., Zhang B., et al. Neuronal CXCL10 directs CD8+ T-cell recruitment and control of West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 2005, 79(17):11457-11466.
106. Purtha W.E., Chachu K.A., Virgin H.W., et al. Early B-cell activation after West Nile virus infection requires alpha/beta interferon but not antigen receptor signaling. J Virol 2008, 82(22):10964-10974.
107. Diamond M.S., Sitati E.M., Friend L.D., et al. A critical role for induced IgM in the protection against West Nile virus infection. J Exp Med 2003, 198(12):1853-1862.
108. Ng T., Hathaway D., Jennings N., et al. Equine vaccine for West Nile virus. Dev Biol (Basel) 2003, 114:221-227.
109. Samina I., Khinich Y., Simanov M., et al. An inactivated West Nile virus vaccine for domestic geese-efficacy study and a summary of 4 years of field application. Vaccine 2005, 23(41):4955-4958.
110. Arroyo J., Miller C., Catalan J., et al. ChimeriVax-West Nile virus live-attenuated vaccine: preclinical evaluation of safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. J Virol 2004, 78(22):12497-12507.
111. Minke J.M., Siger L., Karaca K., et al. Recombinant canarypoxvirus vaccine carrying the prM/E genes of West Nile virus protects horses against a West Nile virus-mosquito challenge. Arch Virol Suppl 2004, 18:221-230.
112. Monath T.P., Liu J., Kanesa-Thasan N., et al. A live, attenuated recombinant West Nile virus vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006, 103(17):6694-6699.
113. Pletnev A.G., Claire M.S., Elkins R., et al. Molecularly engineered live-attenuated chimeric West Nile/dengue virus vaccines protect rhesus monkeys from West Nile virus. Virology 2003, 314(1):190-195.
114. Davis B.S., Chang G.J., Cropp B., et al. West Nile virus recombinant DNA vaccine protects mouse and horse from virus challenge and expresses in vitro a noninfectious recombinant antigen that can be used in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. J Virol 2001, 75(9):4040-4047.
115. Chu J.H., Chiang C.C., Ng M.L. Immunization of flavivirus West Nile recombinant envelope domain III protein induced specific immune response and protection against West Nile virus infection. J Immunol 2007, 178(5):2699-2705.
116. Ledizet M., Kar K., Foellmer H.G., et al. A recombinant envelope protein vaccine against West Nile virus. Vaccine 2005, 23(30):3915-3924.
117. Lieberman M.M., Clements D.E., Ogata S., et al. Preparation and immunogenic properties of a recombinant West Nile subunit vaccine. Vaccine 2007, 25(3):414-423.
118. Qiao M., Ashok M., Bernard K.A., et al. Induction of sterilizing immunity against West Nile Virus (WNV), by immunization with WNV-like particles produced in insect cells. J Infect Dis 2004, 190(12):2104-2108.
119. Seino K.K., Long M.T., Gibbs E.P., et al. Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vaccines against West Nile Virus (WNV) in a short-duration challenge trial involving an equine WNV encephalitis model. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007, 14(11):1465-1471.