Satisfying the want for labouring people: European slave trading in the indian ocean, 1500-1850

Journal of World History

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 45-73

  Allen, Richard B ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERNATIONAL TRADE; LABOR SUPPLY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SLAVERY; TRADE RELATIONS;

EUROPE; INDIAN OCEAN;

EID: 77951430498     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (230)

1. Court of Directors to President and Council of Bombay, 5 July 1758, Oriental and India Office Collections (hereafter cited as OIOC), British Library, London: E/4/996, pp. 646-647.
2. Roger Carter to Court of Directors, 10 March 1759, OIOC: G/35/12, fol. 67r.
3. Abstract of Lascars, Slaves &c at Fort Marlboro' & its Dependencies Ulto' November 1759, OIOC: G/35/12, fol. 360.
4. Roger Carter and Robert Hay to Court of Directors, 31 December 1759, OIOC: G/35/12, fol. 416v.
5. Memorandums from Fort Marlbro' Letters 1762, "G:Lre 17 Apr 1 1762⋯ . ," OIOC: G/35/12, fol. 642v.
6. Roger Carter et al. to Court of Directors, 18 October 1762, OIOC: G/35/12, fol. 810r.
7. Jacques Auber, Histoire de l'Océan Indien (Tananarive, 1955); Auguste Toussaint, Histoire de l'Océan Indien (Paris, 1961), Eng. trans. as History of the Indian Ocean (Chicago, 1966).
8. Auguste Toussaint, L'Océan Indien au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1974).
9. K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)
10. Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993)
11. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon: A History of the Indian Ocean and Its Invaders (London: HarperCollins, 1996)
12. R. J. Barendse, The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century (Armonk, N.Y.: East Gate Books, 2002)
13. Milo Kearney, The Indian Ocean in World History (New York: Routledge, 2004)
14. Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
15. Niels Steensgaard, "The Indian Ocean Network and the Emerging World Economy, c. 1500-1750," in The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, ed. Satish Chandra (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1987), p. 127.
16. Janet Ewald, "Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen, and Other Migrants in the Northwestern Indian Ocean, c. 1750-1914," American Historical Review 98 (2000): 69.
17. Pier Larson, "African Diasporas and the Atlantic," in The Atlantic in Global History, 1500 - 2000, ed. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Erik R. Seeman (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), pp. 129-147.
18. William Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London: Routledge, 1989).
19. Shihan de S. Jayasuriya and Richard Pankhurst, eds., The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 2003).
20. Gwyn Campbell, ed., The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Frank Cass, 2004)
21. Edward Alpers, Gwyn Campbell, and Michael Salman, eds., Slavery and Resistance in Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005)
22. Gwyn Campbell, ed., Abolition and Its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005).
23. Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1971), p. xv.
24. Markus Vink, "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of World History 14, no.2 (2003): 131-177. (Pubitemid 36901205)
25. This crucial research tool, annual updates of which are published in Slavery and Abolition, is now accessible online at http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/ bibliographyofslavery/.
26. D. R. Banaji, Slavery in British India, 2nd ed. (Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala Sons and Co., 1933)
27. Amal Kumar Chattopadhyay, Slavery in the Bengal Presidency, 1772 - 1843 (London: Goldon Eagle Publishing House, 1977)
28. Indrani Chatterjee, Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999)
29. Indrani Chatterjee and Richard M. Eaton, eds., Slavery and South Asian History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).
30. Ashin Das Gupta, Malabar in Asian Trade, 1740 - 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967)
31. Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Merchants, Companies and Commerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1650-1740 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1986)
32. Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, eds., India and the Indian Ocean, 1500 - 1800 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1986)
33. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Improvising Empire: Portuguese Trade and Settlement in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1700 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990)
34. Rudrangshu Mukherjee and Lakshmi Subramanian, eds., Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean World: Essays in Honour of Ashin Das Gupta (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998)
35. Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
36. Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China Sea (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000)
37. Uma Das Gupta, comp., The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500 - 1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001).
38. Andrew Turton, "Thai Institutions of Slavery," in Asian and African Systems of Slavery, ed. James L. Watson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 251-292.
39. James Francis Warren, The Sulu Zone, 1768 - 1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State, 2nd ed. (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1981; repr., Singapore: National University of Singapore, 2007)
40. Antony Reid, ed., Slavery and Bondage and Dependency in Southeast Asia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983)
41. Ghislaine Loyré, "Les musulmans de Mindanao et la traite d'après les sources occidentals (XVIe-XVIIe siècles)," in De la traite à l'esclavage: Actes du Colloque international sur la traite des Noirs, Nantes 1985, ed. Serge Daget (Paris, 1988), 1:9-18
42. Andrew Turton, "Violent Capture of People for Exchange on Karen-Kai Borders in the 1830s," in Campbell, Structure of Slavery, pp. 69-82
43. Peter Boomgaard, "Human Capital, Slavery and Low Rates of Economic and Population Growth in Indonesia, 1600 -1910," in Campbell, Structure of Slavery, pp. 83-96
44. Karine Delaye, "Slavery and Colonial Representations in Indochina from the Second Half of the Nineteenth to the Early Twentieth Century," in Campbell, Structure of Slavery, pp. 129-142.
45. C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600 - 1800 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965)
46. K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660-1760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978)
47. Om Prakash, The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985)
48. Philippe Haudrère, La Compagnie des indes française au XVIIIe siècle (1719-1795) (Paris: Librairie de l'Inde, 1989)
49. Sudipta Sen, Empire of Free Trade: The East India Company and the Making of the Colonial Marketplace (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998)
50. Lakshmi Subramanian, ed., The French East India Company and the Trade of the Indian Ocean: A Collection of Essays by Indrani Ray (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1999)
51. H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756 - 1833 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
52. Donald C. Wellington, French East India Companies: A Historical Account and Record of Trade (Lanham, Md.: Hamilton Books, 2006).
53. Early scholarship includes J. T. Hardyman, "The Madagascar Slave-Trade to the Americas (1632-1830)," in Océan Indien et Méditerrannée: Travaux du sixième colloque international d'histoire maritime et du deuxième congrès de l'Association Historique Internationale de l'Océan Indien (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1964), pp. 501-521
54. G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, The French at Kilwa Island (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965); Virginia Bever Platt, "The East India Company and the Madagascar Slave Trade," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 26, no.4 (1969): 548-577.
55. Rudy Bauss, "The Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique to Portuguese India and Macau and Comments on Timor, 1750-1850: New Evidence from the Archives," Camões Center Quarterly 6-7, nos. 1-2 (1997): 21-27
56. Pedro Machado, "A Forgotten Corner of the Indian Ocean: Gujarati Merchants, Portuguese India and the Mozambique Slave-Trade, c. 1730-1830," in Campbell, Structure of Slavery, pp. 17-32
57. Pedro Machado, "Gujarati Indian Merchant Networks in Mozambique, 1777-c. 1830" (PhD diss., University of London, 2005), esp. pp. 212-251.
58. James C. Armstrong, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade in the Seventeenth Century," Omaly Si Anio 17-20 (1983-1984): 211-233
59. Robert Ross, "The Dutch on the Swahili Coast, 1776-1778: Two Slaving Journals, Part 1," International Journal of African Historical Studies 19, no.2 (1986): 305-360
60. Robert Ross, "The Last Years of the Slave Trade to the Cape Colony," in Clarence-Smith, Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, pp. 209-219
61. Gerrit J. Knaap, "Slavery and the Dutch in Southeast Asia," in Fifty Years Later: Antislavery, Capitalism and Modernity in the Dutch Orbit, ed. Gert Oostindie (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), pp. 193-206
62. Sudeshna Chakravarti, "The Dutch East India Company and Slave Trade in Seventeenth Century India: An Outline by Pieter van Dam, An Advocate of the Company," Journal of the Asiatic Society 39, no.2 (1997): 73-99
63. James C. Armstrong, "Ceylon and the Slave Trade during the Dutch East India Company Period" (paper presented to the workshop on "Slave Systems in Asia and the Indian Ocean: Their Structures and Change in the 19th and 20th Centuries," Université d'Avignon, 18-20 May 2000; my thanks to the author for permission to cite this paper); Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade'"
64. Piet Westra and James C. Armstrong, Slave Trade with Madagascar: The Journals of the Cape Slaver Leijdsman, 1715 (Cape Town: Africana Publishers, 2006).
65. Freeman-Grenville, French at Kilwa Island; G. A. Akinola, "The French on the Lindi Coast, 1785-1789," Tanzania Notes and Records 70 (1970): 13-20
66. Edward A. Alpers, "The French Slave Trade in East Africa (1721-1810)," Cahiers d'études africaines 37 (1970): 80-124
67. Teotonio R. de Souza, "French Slave-Trading in Portuguese Goa (1773-1791)," in Essays in Goan History, ed. Teotonio R. de Souza (New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1989), pp. 123-126
68. Jeannette Pinto, "The Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean: The French Experience," in French in India and Indian Nationalism (1700 A.D.-1963 A.D.), ed. K. S. Mathew (Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation, 1999), 2:599-610.
69. Robert J. Young, "Slaves, Coolies and Bondsmen. A Study of Assisted Migration in Response to Emerging English Shipping Networks in the Indian Ocean, 1685-1776," Indian Ocean Review 2, no.3 (1989): 23-26.
70. J.-M. Filliot, La traite des esclaves vers les Mascareignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: O.R.S.T.R.O.M., 1974)
71. Marina Carter, "Indian Slaves in Mauritius (1729-1834)," Indian Historical Review 15, nos. 1-2 (1988-1989): 233-247
72. Pier Larson, "A Census of Slaves Exported from Central Madagascar to the Mascarenes between 1769 and 1820," in L'Esclavage à Madagascar: Aspects historiques et resurgences contemporaines, ed. Ignace Rakoto (Antananarivo: Institut de Civilisations-Musée d'Artet d'Archéologie, 1997), pp. 131-145
73. Pier Larson, History and Memory in the Age of Enslavement: Becoming Merina in Highland Madagascar, 1770 - 1822 (Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann, 2000), esp. chap. 2
74. Pier Larson, "The Route of the Slave from Highland Madagascar to the Mascarenes: Commercial Organization, 1770-1820," in La route des esclaves: Système servile et traite dans l'est malgache, ed. Ignace Rakoto (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2000), pp. 119-180
75. Richard B. Allen, "'A Traffic of Several Nations': The Mauritian Slave Trade, 1721-1835," in History, Memory and Identity, ed. Vijayalakshmi Teelock and Edward A. Alpers (Réduit, Mauritius: Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture/ University of Mauritius, 2001), pp. 157-177
76. Pier Larson, "The Origins of Malagasy Arriving at Mauritius and Réunion: Expanding the History of Mascarene Slavery," in Teelock and Alpers, History, Memory and Identity, pp. 195-236
77. Richard B. Allen, "The Mascarene Slave-Trade and Labour Migration in the Indian Ocean during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," in Campbell, Structure of Slavery, pp. 33-50
78. Richard B. Allen, "Carrying Away the Unfortunate: The Exportation of Slaves from India during the Late Eighteenth Century," in Le monde créole: Peuplement, sociétés et condition humaine, XVIIe-XXe siècles, ed. Jacques Weber (Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2005), pp. 285- 298
79. Marina Carter, "A Servile Minority in a Sugar Island: Malay and Chinese Slaves in Mauritius," in Weber, Le monde créole, pp. 257-271
80. Richard B. Allen, "A Traffic Repugnant to Humanity: Children, the Mascarene Slave Trade and British Abolitionism," Slavery and Abolition 27 (2006): 219-236
81. Richard B. Allen, "The Constant Demand of the French: The Mascarene Slave Trade and the Worlds of the Indian Ocean and Atlantic during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Journal of African History 49 (2008): 43-72.
82. Hubert Gerbeau, "Quelques aspects de la traite illégale des esclaves à l'Ile Bourbon au XIXe siècle," in Mouvements de populations dans l'Océan Indien (Paris: H. Champion, 1979), pp. 273-308
83. Marina Carter and Hubert Gerbeau, "Covert Slaves and Coveted Coolies in the Early 19th Century Mascareignes," Slavery and Abolition 9 (1988): 194-208
84. Claude Wanquet, "La traite illégale à Maurice à l'époque anglaise (1811-1835)," in Daget, De la traite à l'esclavage, 2:451-466
85. Serge Daget, "Révolution ajournée: Bourbon et la traite illégale française, 1815-1832," in Révolution française et Océan Indien: Prémices, paroxysmes, héritages et deviances, ed. Claude Wanquet and Benoît Jullien (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1996), pp. 333-346
86. Deryck Scarr, Slaving and Slavery in the Indian Ocean (London: Macmillan Press, 1998)
87. Hubert Gerbeau, "L'Océan Indien n'est pas l'Atlantique: La traite illégale à Bourbon au XIXe siècle," Outre-mers, Revue d'histoire 89, nos. 336-337 (2002): 79-108
88. Héloïse Finch, "Comprendre la traite illegal d'esclaves pendant l'occupation Britannique de La Réunion à travers les archives britanniques," in Identité et société réunionnaise: Nouvelles perspectives et nouvelles approaches, ed. Laurent Médéa, Lucette Labache, and Françoise Vergès (Paris: Éditions Karthala, 2005), pp. 67-88.
89. Jerry H. Bentley, "Sea and Ocean Basin as Frameworks of Historical Analysis," Geographical Review 89, no.2 (1999): 215-224.
90. See the William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 63, no.4 (2006), especially the articles by Alison Games ("Beyond the Atlantic: English Globetrotters and Transoceanic Connections," pp. 675-920)
91. Philip J. Stern ("British Asia and British Atlantic: Comparisons and Connections," pp. 693-712)
92. Peter A. Coclanis ("Atlantic World or Atlantic/World?" pp. 727-728).
93. For a review of the issues surrounding how the Atlantic world has been defined, see Alison Games, "Atlantic History: Definitions, Challenges, and Opportunities," American Historical Review 111 (2006): 741-757.
94. This article is part of an AHR Forum on "Oceans in History," a forum that completely ignored the Indian Ocean.
95. Philip J. Stern, "Politics and Ideology in the Early East India Company-State: The Case of St. Helena, 1673-1709," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35, no.1 (2007): 1-23.
96. Allen, "Traffic Repugnant to Humanity";; Richard B. Allen, "Suppressing a Nefarious Traffic: Britain and the Abolition of Slave Trading in the Western Indian Ocean, 1770- 1830," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 66, no.4 (2009): 873-894
97. Richard B. Allen, "Children and European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean during the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," in Children in Slavery through the Ages, ed. Gwyn Campbell, Suzanne Miers, and Joseph C. Miller (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009), pp. 35-54.
98. Hubert Gerbeau, "The Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean: Problems Facing the Historian and Research to be Undertaken," in The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Paris: U.N.E.S.C.O., 1979), pp. 184-207.
99. See David Eltis, David Richardson, Stephen D. Behrendt, and Herbert S. Klein, The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-ROM (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). For an updated version, see the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database now available online at http://www. slavevoyages.org/.
100. Jill Louise Geber, "The East India Company and Southern Africa: A Guide to the Archives of the East India Company and the Board of Control, 1600-1858" (PhD diss., University College London, 1998), p. 101.
101. Robert Louis Stein, The French Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Century: An Old Régime Business (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979); Haudrère, La Compagnie des indes.
102. Markus Vink, "From Port-City to World-System: Spatial Constructs of Dutch Indian Ocean Studies, 1500-1800," Itinerario 28, no.2 (2004): 45-116
103. Markus P. M. Vink, "Indian Ocean Studies and the 'New Thalassology,'" Journal of Global History 2 (2007): 41-62
104. Edward Simpson and Kai Kresse, "Cosmopolitanism Contested: Anthropology and History in the Western Indian Ocean," in Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean, ed. Edward Simpson and Kai Kresse (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), pp. 1-41
105. Gwyn Campbell, "Islam in Indian Ocean Africa Prior to the Scramble: A New Historical Paradigm," in Simpson and Kresse, Struggling with History, pp. 43-92.
106. Michael N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), p. 161.
107. Machado, "Gujarati Indian Merchant Networks," p. 214.
108. Bauss, "Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique," p. 21.
109. Machado, "Forgotten Corner of the Indian Ocean," pp. 20 -21.
110. Bauss, "Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique," p. 21.
111. Jean Gelman Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: European and Eurasian in Dutch Asia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), pp. 16-18
112. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" p. 166.
113. Ibid., pp. 140 -145. Vink identifies three major regional catchment areas within the Indian Ocean: the Indian subcontinent (the Arakanese-Bengali, Coromandel, and Malabar coasts), the Indonesian archipelago (especially Makassar and Bali), and Madagascar and the East African coast.
114. Log book of the Hart, England to Surat, 1627-1628, OIOC: L/MAR/A/XLVII, pp. 51-52, 64
115. Journal of Peter Andrewes, masters mate of the Mary and then master of the Hart until decease of Capt. Andrew Evens and then by consultation of the Hopewell from St. Helena to England, 1627-1629, L/MAR/ A/XLIX, p. 38.
116. Henry Davison Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640 - 1800: Traced from the East India Company's Records Preserved at Fort St. George and the India Office, and from Other Sources (London: John Murray, 1913), 1:127-128, 130-131, 135, 147, 149.
117. Basanta Kumar Basu, "Notes on Slave Trade and Slavery in India during the Early Days of John Company," Muslim Review (Calcutta) 4, no.4 (1930): 22.
118. Bombay Public Consultations of 7 May 1765, 28 May 1765, and 2 July 1765, OIOC: P/341/28, pp. 276, 308, 398, respectively.
119. Young, "Slaves, Coolies and Bondsmen."
120. A Survey Report of the Slaves arrived on the Ravensworth taken by order of Francis Light Esqr., Prince of Wales Island, 9 June 1787, OIOC: G/34/2, pp. 584-587.
121. General Letter dated 20 March 1765 by Roger Carter et al., OIOC: G/35/44, p. 115.
122. Allen, "Licentious and Unbridled Proceedings," pp. 100-101
123. The 1817 Mauritian slave census includes many other ethnonyms, the modern equivalent of which remains uncertain.
124. Allen, "Constant Demand of the French," pp. 10-11.
125. Thomas Vernet, "Le commerce des esclaves sur la côte Swahili, 1500-1700," Azania 38 (2003): 69-97.
126. The average number of such importations into the Persian Gulf was five hundred to six hundred a year between 1722 and 1822 (Thomas M. Ricks, "Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries: An Assessment," in Clarence-Smith, Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, pp. 64, 67). For contemporary accounts of European slave trading along these coasts, see Ross, "Dutch on the Swahili Coast";; Westra and Armstrong, Slave Trade.
127. Edwin M. Loeb, Sumatra: Its History and People (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 129.
128. In the early nineteenth century, Nias reportedly exported approximately 1,500 slaves each year on Achinese and Chinese vessels, the latter of which carried these slaves to Padang and Batavia. John Prince and William Jack to Sir T. Stamford Raffles, 31 December 1820 (OIOC: F/4 /659/18295, pp. 58-59).
129. Anthony Reid, Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 1999), p. 210.
130. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" p. 144.
131. Allen, "Children and European Slave Trading."
132. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" pp. 142-143.
133. S. Arasaratnam, "Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," in Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, ed. K. S. Mathews (New Delhi: Manohar, 1995), pp. 195-208; Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade'"; Allen, "Constant Demand of the French."
134. A. Reid, "Introduction: Slavery and Bondage in Southeast Asian History," in Reid, Slavery, Bondage and Dependency, p. 12.
135. A. Van der Kraan, "Bali: Slavery and Slave Trade," in Reid, Slavery, Bondage and Dependency, pp. 322, 337.
136. a [referencing General Letter of 18 October 1762], OIOC: G/35/13, fol. 4v.
137. Roger Carter, Robert Hay, and John Hebert to Court of Directors, 19 April 1765, OIOC: G/35/13, fol. 273v, para. 73.
138. Roger Carter, Heny Idell and Robert Nairne to Court of Directors, July 1764, OIOC: G/35/13, fol. 135r.
139. Public Consultation, Fort Marlbro', 20 August 1764, OIOC: G/35/72, p. 187.
140. Roger Carter et al. to Court of Directors, 20 March 1765, OIOC: G/35/13, fol. 216r, para. 62.
141. Allen, "Mascarene Slave-Trade," p. 37.
142. Allen, "Constant Demand of the French," pp. 15-16.
143. Roger Carter, Heny Idell and Robert Nairne to Court of Directors, 22 July 1763, OIOC: G/35/13, fols. 28v & 29r, para. 42.
144. Roger Carter et al. to Court of Directors, 20 March 1765, OIOC: G/35/13, fols. 215v & 216r, paras. 60 & 62 respectively.
145. Young, "Slaves, Coolies and Bondsmen," p. 24.
146. James C. Armstrong and Nigel A. Worden, "The Slaves, 1652-1834," in The Shaping of South African Society, 1652 - 1840, ed. Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), pp. 112-120; Allen, "Constant Demand of the French."
147. rDentrecasteaux en avril 1789.
148. Armstrong, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade," pp. 224-227
149. Roger Carter, Heny Idell, and Robert Nairne to Court of Directors, July 1764, OIOC: G/35/13, fol. 135r.
150. Allen, "Mascarene Slave-Trade," p. 41
151. OC 40/135, 11 juin 1779, MNA.
152. Letter from W. G. Farmer, 17 May 1792, OIOC: P/E/5, p. 399.
153. Mathew Yeats to Major-General William Medows, 3 February 1792, OIOC: P/241/31, p. 562
154. These figures do not include slaves purchased by Europeans, especially the Dutch in Southeast Asia, from indigenous or Chinese traders who transported slaves to European establishments for sale.
155. Reid, Charting the Shape, p. 209.
156. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" pp. 140, 143.
157. Arasaratnam, "Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean," pp. 197-199.
158. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, "Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in SeventeenthCentury Mrauk-U," Journal of Early Modern History 1, no.3 (1997): 201-253.
159. Consultation of 14 May 1688, OIOC: G/19/5, fol. 43r; The Diary & Consultation Book of the Honble Elihu Yale Esq re President Governour & Councill their proceedings & transactions for the affairs of the Rt. Honble English East India Company in the Presidency of the Coast of Choromandell & the Bay of Bengala, OIOC: Mss. Eur. Mack General 55, pp. 46-47.
160. [Despatch to] Bombay Political Department, Answer to the Letters in the Political Department dated the 4th August 1792, 7th September 1792, 21st December 1792 and 10th March 1793, OIOC: E/4/1009, pp. 247-248.
161. Answer to the Letter in the Political Department dated 25th Sept r 1794, OIOC: E/4/1011, pp. 411-412.
162. Allen, "Traffic Repugnant to Humanity"Allen, "Suppressing a Nefarious Traffic."
163. Larson, History and Memory; Gwyn Campbell, An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750 - 1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
164. Pier Larson, "Enslaved Malagasy and 'Le Travail de la parole' in the Pre-Revolutionary Mascarenes," Journal of African History 47 (2007): 457-479. (Pubitemid 350252839)
165. Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar (London: James Currey, 1987), p. 50; Allen, "Suppressing a Nefarious Traffic."
166. Determining the number of African slaves exported across the Atlantic has remained a subject of study and debate since the publication of Philip Curtin's classic The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). Paul Lovejoy, for example, puts the number of such exports between 1450 and 1900 at 11,313,000 (Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, 2nd ed. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000], p. 19), while the online Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database estimates that 12,521,000 African slaves were exported to the Americas between 1500 and 1866.
167. John E. Wills Jr., "Maritime Asia, 1500-1800: The Interactive Emergence of European Domination," American Historical Review 98 (1993): 83-105.
168. Allen, "Constant Demand of the French";; Allen, "Suppressing a Nefarious Traffic."
169. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" p. 168.
170. David Geggus, "The French Slave Trade: An Overview," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 58, no.1 (2001): 121, and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, respectively.
171. Allen, "Mascarene Slave-Trade," p. 41.
172. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, p. 47.
173. Ibid., pp. 62, 142.
174. Alpers, "French Slave Trade," pp. 80-82.
175. Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895," Journal of African History 22 (1981): 203-227
176. Campbell, "The East African Slave Trade, 1861-1895: The 'Southern' Complex," International Journal of African Historical Studies 22, no.1 (1989): 1-26.
177. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 70-71.
178. See also Edward A. Alpers, "Mozambique and 'Mozambiques': Slave Trade and Diaspora on a Global Scale," in Slave Routes and Oral Tradition in Southeastern Africa, ed. Benigna Zimba, Edward Alpers, and Allen Isaacman (Maputo: Filsom Entertainment, 2005), pp. 51, 55.
179. James C. Armstrong, "The Ceylon Connection: Convicts and Exiles from Ceylon Sent to the Cape of Good Hope during the Dutch East India Company Period" (paper presented to the interdisciplinary conference "Colonial Places, Convict Spaces: Penal Transportation in Global Context, c. 1600-1940," University of Leicester, 9-10 December 1999). A total of 1,025 such convicts arrived at the Cape between 1722 and 1757. My thanks to the author for permission to cite this paper.
180. Farley Grubb, "The Transatlantic Market for British Convict Labor," Journal of Economic History 60, no.1 (2000): 94-122
181. Colin Forster, "Convicts: Unwilling Migrants from Britain and France," in Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives, ed. David Eltis (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), pp. 259-291. Approximately fifty thousand British convicts reached America between 1718 and 1775.
182. For an overview, see Clare Anderson, Legible Bodies: Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia (Oxford: Berg, 2004).
183. Anand A. Yang, "Indian Convict Workers in Southeast Asia in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries," Journal of World History 14, no.2 (2003): 179-208.
184. Clare Anderson, Convicts in the Indian Ocean: Transportation from South Asia to Mauritius, 1815-1853 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
185. Marcus Rediker, Cassandra Pybus, and Emma Christopher, "Introduction," in Many Middle Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World, ed. Emma Christopher, Cassandra Pybus, and Marcus Rediker (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 9, citing Clare Anderson, personal communication, April 2006.
186. Nineteenth-century abolitionists first advanced this notion. Modern proponents of this view follow Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830-1920, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1974; repr., London: Hansib, 1993).
187. Allen, "Carrying Away the Unfortunate," pp. 295-296.
188. I. M. Cumpston, Indians Overseas in British Territories, 1834-1854 (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 85.
189. More than 452,000 indentured workers, mostly from India but also from Aden, China, the Comoros, and Madagascar, landed on Mauritius from 1834 to 1910, mostly from 1834 to the mid 1870s. See Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834-1874 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995)
190. Marina Carter and James Ng, Forging the Rainbow: Labour Immigrants in British Mauritius (Mauritius, 1997).
191. Benedicte Hjejle, "Slavery and Agricultural Bondage in South India in the Nineteenth Century," Scandinavian Economic History Review 15 (1967): 106.
192. Slavery, Kidnapping and Sale of children in Tanjore and Tinnevelly [1825], OIOC: F/4/1034/28499; Slavery: Correspondence with the Resident at Mocha relative to the Traffic carried on by a subject of the Judda Government [ June 1826], F/4/1035/ 28524.
193. Northrup, Indentured Labor, p. 60.
194. Mahatma Gandhi Institute, Moka, Mauritius, PE 1. The men in question belonged to the Palin and Pulaya castes.
195. Leslie Bethell, "The Mixed Commissions for the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of African History 7 (1966): 79-93.
196. An estimated 116,000 "Liberated Africans" were removed from captured slavers in the Atlantic by the Royal Navy between 1810 and 1846. See Alvin O. Thompson, "African 'Recaptives' under Apprenticeship in the British West Indies, 1807-1828," Immigrants and Minorities 9, no.2 (1990): 123-144.
197. Christopher Saunders, "Liberated Africans in Cape Colony in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century," International Journal of African Historical Studies 18, no.2 (1985): 223-239.
198. See also Saunders, "'Free, Yet Slaves': Prize Negroes at the Cape Revisited," in Breaking the Chains: Slavery and Its Legacy in the Nineteenth-Century Cape Colony, ed. Nigel Worden and Clifton Crais (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1994), pp. 99-115.
199. M. Carter, V. Govinden, and S. Peerthum, The Last Slaves: Liberated Africans in 19th Century Mauritius (Port Louis: Centre for Research on Indian Ocean Societies, 2003), p. 22.
200. François Renault, Libération d'esclaves et nouvelle servitude: Les rachats de captives africains pour le compte des colonies françaises après l'abolition de l'esclavage (Paris: Les Nouvelles Éditions Africaines, 1976)
201. Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo, "Aperçu d'une immigration forcée: L'importation d'africains libérés aux Mascareignes et aux Seychelles, 1840-1880," in Minorités et gens de mer en Océan Indien, XIXe-XXe siècles, IHPOM Études et documents no.12 (1979): 73-84
202. Jean Martin, Comores: Quatre îles entre pirates et planteurs (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1983), 1:215-225, 252-261.
203. Monica Schuler, "The Recruitment of African Indentured Labourers for European Colonies in the Nineteenth Century," in Emmer, Colonialism and Migration, pp. 125-161
204. Capela and Medeiros, "La traite au départ du Mozambique," pp. 266-271
205. Sudel Fuma, "La traite des esclaves dans le bassin du sud-ouest de l'Océan Indien et la France après 1848," in Rakoto, La route des esclaves, pp. 247-261
206. Yves Combeau, Prosper Eve, Sudel Fuma, and Edmond Maestri, eds., Histoire de La Réunion: De la colonie à la region (La Réunion, 2001), pp. 77-90
207. Jehanne-Emmanuelle Monnier, Esclaves de la canne à sucre: Engagés et planteurs à Nossi-Bé, Madagascar, 1850-1880 (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2006). 122 Fuma, "La traite des esclaves," pp. 249, 252.
208. Marina Carter, "Slavery and Unfree Labour in the Indian Ocean," History Compass 4, no.5 (2006): 800-813
209. Gwyn Campbell, "Slavery and the Trans-Indian Ocean World Slave Trade: A Historical Outline," in Cross Currents and Community Networks: The History of the Indian Ocean, ed. Himanshu Prabha Ray and Edward A. Alpers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 286-305.
210. See Kerry Ward, Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
211. Cha s Oakeley to Jacob Eilbracht, 14 February 1792, OIOC: P/252/76, p. 791.
212. Hubert Gerbeau, "Engagees and Coolies in Réunion Island: Slavery's Masks and Freedom's Constraints," in Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labour Before and After Slavery, ed. P. C. Emmer (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986), pp. 209-236
213. Campbell, "Madagascar and Mozambique in the Slave Trade of the Western Indian Ocean, 1800-1861," Slavery and Abolition 9 (1988): 166-193
214. For a reassessment of this argument, see Allen, "Constant Demand of the French," pp. 66-67.
215. Mathew Yeats to Sir Charles Oakeley, 22 December 1792, P/241/36, pp. 16, 19.
216. Allen, "Constant Demand of the French," p. 12.
217. Westra and Armstrong, Slave Trade, p. 9.
218. Richard B. Allen, "Licentious and Unbridled Proceedings: The Illegal Slave Trade to Mauritius and the Seychelles during the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of African History 42 (2001): 91-116
219. Hubert Gerbeau, "Les esclaves asiatiques des Mascareignes: Enquêtes et hypothèses," Annuaire des pays de l'Océan Indien 7 (1980): 169-197
220. Arvind Sinha, The Politics of Trade: Anglo-French Commerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1763-1793 (New Delhi: Manohar, 2002).
221. José Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, "La traite au départ du Mozambique vers les îles françaises de l'Océan Indien, 1720-1904," in Slavery in South West Indian Ocean, ed. U. Bissoondoyal and S. B. C. Servansing (Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Gandhi Institute, 1989), pp. 247-309
222. Gerbeau, "Quelques aspects de la traite illégale," p. 293
223. Gerbeau, "L'Océan Indien n'est pas l'Atlantique," p. 96.
224. Allen, "Licentious and Unbridled Proceedings," pp. 108-109.
225. John Keay, The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company (London: HarperCollins, 1991)
226. Hubert Gerbeau, "Des minorités mal-connues: Esclaves indiens et malais des Mascareignes au XIXe siècle," in Migrations, minorités et échanges en Océan Indien, XIXe-XXe siècle, IHPOM Etudes et Documents No.11 (Aix-enProvence, 1978), pp. 160-242
227. Vink, "'World's Oldest Trade,'" pp. 160-163.
228. French slavers operating in the Atlantic averaged 14.9 percent mortality (Herbert Klein, The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978], pp. 195-196).
229. For a survey of this system, see David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
230. Thirty-three such expeditions were mounted between 1654 and 1786.