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Volumn 48, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 457-479

Enslaved Malagasy and 'Le travail de la parole' in the pre-revolutionary Mascarenes

Author keywords

Cultural; Identity; Madagascar; Slavery

Indexed keywords

CHRISTIANITY; CULTURAL IDENTITY; EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; LANGUAGE; SLAVERY; SOCIAL HISTORY;

EID: 34447290896     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: 14695138     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021853707002824     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (16)

References (127)
  • 1
    • 37149052852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Archive designations employed in this article: ACCL.SC.SGGL=Auckland City Central Library (New Zealand), Special Collections, Sir George Grey Library; ACM=Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission (rue de Sèvres, Paris); BL.MD=British Library (London), Manuscripts Division; LMS=London Missionary Society Archives, School of Oriental and African Studies Library, Special Collections: AO=Africa Odds, ILMAU=Incoming Letters Mauritius; MNA.HB= Mauritius National Archives, Series HB; NAB.CO = National Archives of Britain, Colonial Office.
    • Archive designations employed in this article: ACCL.SC.SGGL=Auckland City Central Library (New Zealand), Special Collections, Sir George Grey Library; ACM=Archives de la Congrégation de la Mission (rue de Sèvres, Paris); BL.MD=British Library (London), Manuscripts Division; LMS=London Missionary Society Archives, School of Oriental and African Studies Library, Special Collections: AO=Africa Odds, ILMAU=Incoming Letters Mauritius; MNA.HB= Mauritius National Archives, Series HB; NAB.CO = National Archives of Britain, Colonial Office.
  • 2
    • 37149006418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'L'Isle Dauphine est aussi peuplée que la France', went a typical seventeenth-century observation about Madagascar's population. Gabriel Dellon, Nouvelle relation d'un voyage fait aux Indes orientales, contenant la description des isles de Bourbon & de Madagascar, de Surate, de la côte de Malabar, de Calicut, de Tanor, de Goa, & c. Avec l'histoire des plantes & des animaux qu'on y trouve, & un Traité des maladies particulieres aux pays orientaux & dans la route, & de leurs remedes (Amsterdam, 1699), 23.
    • 'L'Isle Dauphine est aussi peuplée que la France', went a typical seventeenth-century observation about Madagascar's population. Gabriel Dellon, Nouvelle relation d'un voyage fait aux Indes orientales, contenant la description des isles de Bourbon & de Madagascar, de Surate, de la côte de Malabar, de Calicut, de Tanor, de Goa, & c. Avec l'histoire des plantes & des animaux qu'on y trouve, & un Traité des maladies particulieres aux pays orientaux & dans la route, & de leurs remedes (Amsterdam, 1699), 23.
  • 3
    • 37149019215 scopus 로고
    • For the population of Madagascar in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, see, Paris, 20 4 million
    • For the population of Madagascar in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, see Alexis Marie de Rochon, Voyage à Madagascar et aux Indes orientales (Paris, 1791), 20 (4 million);
    • (1791) Voyage à Madagascar et aux Indes orientales
    • Marie de Rochon, A.1
  • 4
    • 37149006109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Boucher to M. le Vicaire général, Pamplemousses [Mauritius], 10 décembre 1805, ACM, Recueil 1504, 259V (3 million)
    • Boucher to M. le Vicaire général, Pamplemousses [Mauritius], 10 décembre 1805, ACM, Recueil 1504, 259V (3 million)
  • 5
    • 37149056877 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R. T. Farquhar to Earl of Liverpool, Port Louis, Mauritius, 28 July 1812, NAB.CO.167-10, not paginated (4 million);
    • R. T. Farquhar to Earl of Liverpool, Port Louis, Mauritius, 28 July 1812, NAB.CO.167-10, not paginated (4 million);
  • 6
    • 37149027224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J.J. Freeman to Revd. William Orme, Port Louis, 14 June 1830, LMS.ILMAU-3-3.B (5 million);
    • J.J. Freeman to Revd. William Orme, Port Louis, 14 June 1830, LMS.ILMAU-3-3.B (5 million);
  • 7
    • 37149016645 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • William Ellis (ed.), History of Madagascar: Comprising also the Progress of the Christian Mission Established in 1818, and an Authentic Account of the Persecution and Recent Martyrdom of the Native Christians (2 vols). (London, 1838), I, 113-14 (4-45 million). By comparison, Norman Etherington has estimated the combined eighteenth-century population of the Xhosa-, Nguni- and Sotho-speaking regions of southeastern Africa at 550,000. These estimates suggest that more people spoke Malagasy in the early nineteenth century than spoke Kiswahili and all of the South African languages combined. Norman Etherington, The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854 (Harlow, 2001), 25.
    • William Ellis (ed.), History of Madagascar: Comprising also the Progress of the Christian Mission Established in 1818, and an Authentic Account of the Persecution and Recent Martyrdom of the Native Christians (2 vols). (London, 1838), I, 113-14 (4-45 million). By comparison, Norman Etherington has estimated the combined eighteenth-century population of the Xhosa-, Nguni- and Sotho-speaking regions of southeastern Africa at 550,000. These estimates suggest that more people spoke Malagasy in the early nineteenth century than spoke Kiswahili and all of the South African languages combined. Norman Etherington, The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854 (Harlow, 2001), 25.
  • 8
    • 37149035865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Inter-intelligibility among Malagasy speech varieties was reported as early as 1658 by _AcEtienne de Flacourt, who wrote that 'La langue est vnique & seule dans toute l'Isle'. Étienne de Flacourt, Histoire de la grande îsle Madagascar (Paris, 1658), ii v.
    • Inter-intelligibility among Malagasy speech varieties was reported as early as 1658 by _AcEtienne de Flacourt, who wrote that 'La langue est vnique & seule dans toute l'Isle'. Étienne de Flacourt, Histoire de la grande îsle Madagascar (Paris, 1658), ii v.
  • 9
    • 37149006110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Barthélemy Huet de Froberville, 'Essai théorique sur la langue madécasse', Port Louis, 28 octobre 1815, BL.MD.Add.Mss.18131, 5r.-5v. A plethora of modern studies and the experiences of Malagasy travelers generally support these conclusions about the past. However, some recent research suggests that the diversity of Malagasy speech varieties may be understated in the literature and that the Big Island's parlers have been diverging significantly over the last two centuries.
    • See also Barthélemy Huet de Froberville, 'Essai théorique sur la langue madécasse', Port Louis, 28 octobre 1815, BL.MD.Add.Mss.18131, 5r.-5v. A plethora of modern studies and the experiences of Malagasy travelers generally support these conclusions about the past. However, some recent research suggests that the diversity of Malagasy speech varieties may be understated in the literature and that the Big Island's parlers have been diverging significantly over the last two centuries.
  • 10
    • 37149005208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See especially Leoni Bouwer, 'The viability of official Malagasy in the language ecology of southern Madagascar with particular reference to the Bara speech community' (Doctor Litterarum et Philosophiae, Department of Linguistics, University of South Africa, Pretoria, 2003).
    • See especially Leoni Bouwer, 'The viability of official Malagasy in the language ecology of southern Madagascar with particular reference to the Bara speech community' (Doctor Litterarum et Philosophiae, Department of Linguistics, University of South Africa, Pretoria, 2003).
  • 11
    • 37149024744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This estimate includes both the East African and Red Sea slave trades departing the African coast, but excludes persons heading into Zanzibar and Pemba or into the Atlantic from Southeast Africa. Pier M. Larson, African diasporas and the Atlantic, in Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Eric R. Seeman (eds, The Atlantic in Global History, 1500-2000 (Upper Saddle River NJ, 2007, calculated from Table I, 134. The estimates summarized here are essentially aggregates of those found in the various chapters of Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa 2nd ed, Cambridge, 2000
    • This estimate includes both the East African and Red Sea slave trades departing the African coast, but excludes persons heading into Zanzibar and Pemba or into the Atlantic from Southeast Africa. Pier M. Larson, 'African diasporas and the Atlantic', in Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Eric R. Seeman (eds.), The Atlantic in Global History, 1500-2000 (Upper Saddle River NJ, 2007), calculated from Table I, 134. The estimates summarized here are essentially aggregates of those found in the various chapters of Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (2nd ed., Cambridge, 2000).
  • 12
    • 35148898127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Colonies lost: God, hunger, and conflict in Anosy (Madagascar) to 1674
    • See, July
    • See Pier M. Larson, 'Colonies lost: God, hunger, and conflict in Anosy (Madagascar) to 1674', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27 (July 2007), 345-66.
    • (2007) Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East , vol.27 , pp. 345-366
    • Larson, P.M.1
  • 13
    • 37149003641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Notes sur Bourbon par M. Caulier, 1764', ACM
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier, 'Notes sur Bourbon par M. Caulier, 1764', ACM, Recueil 1504, 55r.;
    • Recueil , vol.1504
    • Caulier, P.1
  • 15
    • 37149039784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Histoire oubliée, histoire occultée? La diaspora malgache à La Réunion: Entre esclavage et liberté
    • Ignace Rakoto ed, Antananarivo
    • Hubert Gerbeau, 'Histoire oubliée, histoire occultée? La diaspora malgache à La Réunion: Entre esclavage et liberté, in Ignace Rakoto (ed.), L'esclavage à Madagascar: Aspects historiques et résurgences contemporaines (Antananarivo, 1997), 4-9;
    • (1997) L'esclavage à Madagascar: Aspects historiques et résurgences contemporaines , pp. 4-9
    • Gerbeau, H.1
  • 16
    • 83655176333 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'esclavage et le métissage: L'exemple d'une famille réunionnaise au XIXe siècle
    • Benoît Jullien ed, Saint-Denis
    • Sudel Fuma, 'L'esclavage et le métissage: L'exemple d'une famille réunionnaise au XIXe siècle', in Benoît Jullien (ed., Île de la Reunion: Regards croisés sur l'esclavage, 1794-1848 (Saint-Denis, 1998), 114-18;
    • (1998) Île de la Reunion: Regards croisés sur l'esclavage, 1794-1848 , pp. 114-118
    • Fuma, S.1
  • 17
    • 34447263577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'Océan Indien n'est pas l'Atlantique: La traite illégale à Bourbon au XIXe siècle
    • Hubert Gerbeau, 'L'Océan Indien n'est pas l'Atlantique: La traite illégale à Bourbon au XIXe siècle', Outre-Mers: Revue d'Histoire, 89 (2002), 82-3.
    • (2002) Outre-Mers: Revue d'Histoire , vol.89 , pp. 82-83
    • Gerbeau, H.1
  • 19
    • 37149012338 scopus 로고
    • Notice sur les vents, les courans et les atterrages de la côte sudest de l'l̂e de Madagascar, par M. Frappaz, enseigne de vaisseau
    • Théophile Frappaz, 'Notice sur les vents, les courans et les atterrages de la côte sudest de l'l̂e de Madagascar, par M. Frappaz, enseigne de vaisseau', Annales Maritimes et Coloniales, 12 (1820), 692-700;
    • (1820) Annales Maritimes et Coloniales , vol.12 , pp. 692-700
    • Frappaz, T.1
  • 21
    • 77951485495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Mascarene slave-trade
    • 41
    • Allen, 'The Mascarene slave-trade', 41.
    • Allen1
  • 24
    • 79956997451 scopus 로고
    • Aperçu général sur l'évolution des groupes ethniques à l'île Bourbon depuis les origines jusqu'en 1848
    • See also, ed, Paris
    • See also Jean Barassin, 'Aperçu général sur l'évolution des groupes ethniques à l'île Bourbon depuis les origines jusqu'en 1848', in Catherine Méhaud (ed.), Mouvements de populations dans l'ocean Indien (Paris, 1980), 245-57.
    • (1980) Mouvements de populations dans l'ocean Indien , pp. 245-257
    • Barassin, J.1
  • 25
    • 77951485495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Mascarene slave-trade
    • 41
    • Allen, 'The Mascarene slave-trade', 41.
    • Allen1
  • 26
    • 34447250827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La diaspora malgache aux Mascareignes (XVIIIe et XIXe siècles): Notes sur la démographie et la langue
    • Pier M. Larson, 'La diaspora malgache aux Mascareignes (XVIIIe et XIXe siècles): Notes sur la démographie et la langue', Revue Historique de l'Ocean Indien, 1 (2005), 143-55.
    • (2005) Revue Historique de l'Ocean Indien , vol.1 , pp. 143-155
    • Larson, P.M.1
  • 27
    • 37149055654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, en la maison de Saint-Lazare à Paris, 20 Juillet 1773, ACM, Recueil 1504, 220r.
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, en la maison de Saint-Lazare à Paris, 20 Juillet 1773, ACM, Recueil 1504, 220r.
  • 28
    • 37149000910 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cited in Edward A. Alpers, 'Becoming Mozambique: Diaspora and identity in Mauritius', in Vijayalakshmi Teelock and Edward A. Alpers (eds.), History, Memory and Identity (Port Louis, 2001), 134.
    • Cited in Edward A. Alpers, 'Becoming "Mozambique": Diaspora and identity in Mauritius', in Vijayalakshmi Teelock and Edward A. Alpers (eds.), History, Memory and Identity (Port Louis, 2001), 134.
  • 29
    • 37149048400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contact languages in the form of pidgins and creoles are associated with trade and labor migration and the need for individuals with no language in common to communicate with each other. Fanakalo, Kituba, Lingala, Pidgin Ewondo, Shaba Swahili and Town Bemba are examples of other contact languages of importance in African history. John A. Holm, Pidgins and Creoles 2 vols, Cambridge, 1988, esp. I, 1-70;
    • Contact languages in the form of pidgins and creoles are associated with trade and labor migration and the need for individuals with no language in common to communicate with each other. Fanakalo, Kituba, Lingala, Pidgin Ewondo, Shaba Swahili and Town Bemba are examples of other contact languages of importance in African history. John A. Holm, Pidgins and Creoles (2 vols.) (Cambridge, 1988), esp. I, 1-70;
  • 30
    • 37149028435 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contact Languages in the Bantu Area
    • Derek Nurse and Gérard Philippson eds, London
    • Salikoko S. Mufwene, 'Contact Languages in the Bantu Area', in Derek Nurse and Gérard Philippson (eds.), The Bantu Languages (London, 2003), 195-208.
    • (2003) The Bantu Languages , pp. 195-208
    • Mufwene, S.S.1
  • 31
    • 37149055962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to M. T. H. Pave, Saint-Denis, îsle Bourbon, 25 février 1764, ACM, Recueil 1504, 182r. Emphasis added.
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to M. T. H. Pave, Saint-Denis, îsle Bourbon, 25 février 1764, ACM, Recueil 1504, 182r. Emphasis added.
  • 32
    • 37149033720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The colonial street: Ratsitatanina and Mascarene Créolité
    • See, forthcoming
    • See Pier M. Larson, 'The colonial street: Ratsitatanina and Mascarene Créolité', Slavery & Abolition (forthcoming, 2008).
    • (2008) Slavery & Abolition
    • Larson, P.M.1
  • 36
    • 37149026654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gustave Jacques Henri Julien, 'Influence de la langue malgache dans la dénomination des localités de l'île de la Réunion', Bulletin de l'Academie Malgache (4e trimestre, 1902), 163-85;
    • Gustave Jacques Henri Julien, 'Influence de la langue malgache dans la dénomination des localités de l'île de la Réunion', Bulletin de l'Academie Malgache (4e trimestre, 1902), 163-85;
  • 37
    • 37149034328 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chaudenson, Le lexique; Baker and Corne, Isle de France Creole Annegret Bollée, Dictionnaire étymologique des créoles français de l'Océan Indien: Deuxième partie, Mots d'origine non-française ou inconnue (Hamburg, 1993).
    • Chaudenson, Le lexique; Baker and Corne, Isle de France Creole Annegret Bollée, Dictionnaire étymologique des créoles français de l'Océan Indien: Deuxième partie, Mots d'origine non-française ou inconnue (Hamburg, 1993).
  • 41
    • 37148999054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • David Johns to William Ellis, Port Louis, 9 Sept. 1836, LMS.ILMAU.2.1-C, 3.
    • David Johns to William Ellis, Port Louis, 9 Sept. 1836, LMS.ILMAU.2.1-C, 3.
  • 42
    • 37149017362 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • David Ratsarahomba to J. J. Freeman, Port Louis, 6 Jan. 1849, LMS.AO.2-3.B;
    • David Ratsarahomba to J. J. Freeman, Port Louis, 6 Jan. 1849, LMS.AO.2-3.B;
  • 43
    • 37149040708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J. J. Freeman to Revd. Dr. Tidman, Port Louis, 20 Aug. 1850, LMS.AO.2.5.B, 2.
    • J. J. Freeman to Revd. Dr. Tidman, Port Louis, 20 Aug. 1850, LMS.AO.2.5.B, 2.
  • 44
    • 37149040998 scopus 로고
    • Malagasy refugees to Britain, 1838-1841
    • See also
    • See also James Trenchard Hardyman, 'Malagasy refugees to Britain, 1838-1841', Omaly sy Anio, 5-6 (1977), 141-89.
    • (1977) Omaly sy Anio , vol.5-6 , pp. 141-189
    • Trenchard Hardyman, J.1
  • 46
    • 37149015117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Webber, Grammaire Malgache, rédigée par les missionnaires catholiques de Madagascar (Île Bourbon, 1855);
    • Joseph Webber, Grammaire Malgache, rédigée par les missionnaires catholiques de Madagascar (Île Bourbon, 1855);
  • 47
    • 37149006728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hevero tsara ny teny-anatra aminy ity taratasy ity: Fa hampiala anao aminy fahotana sy hampihavana anao aminy Zanahary, ny fihevera' nao azy. Le nouveau Pensez-y bien, traduit dans la langue de Madagascar (Île de la Réunion, 1861).
    • Hevero tsara ny teny-anatra aminy ity taratasy ity: Fa hampiala anao aminy fahotana sy hampihavana anao aminy Zanahary, ny fihevera' nao azy. Le nouveau Pensez-y bien, traduit dans la langue de Madagascar (Île de la Réunion, 1861).
  • 50
    • 37149017669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local parish records remain an underexploited resource, however, and I have not employed them here
    • Local parish records remain an underexploited resource, however, and I have not employed them here.
  • 51
    • 37149044992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • When the letters were copied into the registers is not altogether clear, but references in them along with the same scribe's handwriting, make clear that it was after the Revolution. The copies preserve the original orthography, or at least attempt to. A careful reader will notice inadvertent slips into modern spellings.
    • When the letters were copied into the registers is not altogether clear, but references in them along with the same scribe's handwriting, make clear that it was after the Revolution. The copies preserve the original orthography, or at least attempt to. A careful reader will notice inadvertent slips into modern spellings.
  • 52
    • 37149010805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paul Durand, Histoire de la Mission des Lazaristes à Madagascar IX: Mémoires de la Congrégation de la Mission (Paris, 1866);
    • Paul Durand, Histoire de la Mission des Lazaristes à Madagascar vol. IX: Mémoires de la Congrégation de la Mission (Paris, 1866);
  • 55
    • 34447270789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le Catéchisme de Flacourt comme témoin des relations linguistiques dans le sud-est de Madagascar au milieu du XVIIe siècle, suivi du lexique du Catéchisme de 1657
    • Noël J. Gueunier, 'Le Catéchisme de Flacourt comme témoin des relations linguistiques dans le sud-est de Madagascar au milieu du XVIIe siècle, suivi du lexique du Catéchisme de 1657', Etudes Océan Indien, 23-4 (1997), 67-147.
    • (1997) Etudes Océan Indien , vol.23 -4 , pp. 67-147
    • Gueunier, N.J.1
  • 56
    • 37149034321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • r Bourdaise prestre de la mesme Congregation', ACM, Recueil 1501; 'Lettre écrite de l'Isle de Madagascar le 15. Januier 1664. par Mr Estienne prestre de la Congregation de la Mission a Monsieur Almeras Superieur General de la mesme Congregation', ACM, Recueil 1501. Note that accents are missing in the originals.
    • r Bourdaise prestre de la mesme Congregation', ACM, Recueil 1501; 'Lettre écrite de l'Isle de Madagascar le 15. Januier 1664. par Mr Estienne prestre de la Congregation de la Mission a Monsieur Almeras Superieur General de la mesme Congregation', ACM, Recueil 1501. Note that accents are missing in the originals.
  • 57
    • 37149018606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Propaganda Fide coordinated Catholic mission efforts around the world and was involved in many decisions concerning the allocation of various mission orders to evangelistic work in the Indian Ocean
    • The Propaganda Fide coordinated Catholic mission efforts around the world and was involved in many decisions concerning the allocation of various mission orders to evangelistic work in the Indian Ocean.
  • 58
    • 37149011146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier, 'Notes sur Bourbon', 54r. Claude Wanquet provides slightly higher numbers: Thirteen priests in 1763 and eleven in 1789. Claude Wanquet, Histoire d'une révolution: La Réunion 1789-1803 (3 vols.) (Marseille, 1980-1), 1, 72-4.
    • Caulier, 'Notes sur Bourbon', 54r. Claude Wanquet provides slightly higher numbers: Thirteen priests in 1763 and eleven in 1789. Claude Wanquet, Histoire d'une révolution: La Réunion 1789-1803 (3 vols.) (Marseille, 1980-1), 1, 72-4.
  • 59
    • 37149050589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This amended provision was also part of the modified Code noir issued for Louisiana one year later, in 1724. Hubert Gerbeau, La liberté des enfants de Dieu: Quelques aspects des relations des esclaves et de l'Église à la Réunion, in Jean-Louis Miège (ed, Problèmes religieux et minorités en Océan Indien: Table ronde Aix-en-Provence, 1981, 51
    • This amended provision was also part of the modified Code noir issued for Louisiana one year later, in 1724. Hubert Gerbeau, 'La liberté des enfants de Dieu: Quelques aspects des relations des esclaves et de l'Église à la Réunion', in Jean-Louis Miège (ed.), Problèmes religieux et minorités en Océan Indien: Table ronde (Aix-en-Provence, 1981), 51
  • 61
    • 34447280858 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A dangerous zeal: Catholic missions to slaves in the French Antilles, 1635-1800
    • Winter
    • Sue Peabody, '"A dangerous zeal": Catholic missions to slaves in the French Antilles, 1635-1800', French Historical Studies, 25 (Winter 2002), 61-2.
    • (2002) French Historical Studies , vol.25 , pp. 61-62
    • Peabody, S.1
  • 62
    • 37149022244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 217v.
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 217v.
  • 63
    • 37149040706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Notes sur Bourbon
    • See also
    • v.
    • v
    • Caulier1
  • 66
    • 84953121481 scopus 로고
    • Le catholicisme des esclaves à I'Ile Maurice
    • U. Bissoondoyal and S. B. C. Servansing eds, Moka
    • Amédée Nagapen, 'Le catholicisme des esclaves à I'Ile Maurice', in U. Bissoondoyal and S. B. C. Servansing (eds.), Slavery in South West Indian Ocean (Moka, 1989), 138-57.
    • (1989) Slavery in South West Indian Ocean , pp. 138-157
    • Nagapen, A.1
  • 68
    • 37149040706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Notes sur Bourbon
    • See
    • v;
    • v
    • Caulier1
  • 69
    • 37149044089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to M. T. H. Pave, Saint-Denis, îsle Bourbon, 25 février 1764, ACM, Recueil 1504, 182v.
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier to M. T. H. Pave, Saint-Denis, îsle Bourbon, 25 février 1764, ACM, Recueil 1504, 182v.
  • 70
    • 37149006427 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • v.
    • v.
  • 71
    • 37149006428 scopus 로고
    • 25 février
    • Caulier to Pave, 25 février 1764, 181r.
    • (1764) , vol.181 r
    • Caulier to Pave1
  • 73
    • 37149023784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier, 'Directoire des paroisses de l'Isle de Bourbon pour l'Isle de France', 1 octobre 1763, ACM, Recueil 1504, not foliated; Nagapen, 'Le catholicisme'. What follows on catechetical instruction is similar to what Vaughan writes in her recent book; both our studies are drawn from the same documentation: Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island, 217-22.
    • Philippe-Albert Caulier, 'Directoire des paroisses de l'Isle de Bourbon pour l'Isle de France', 1 octobre 1763, ACM, Recueil 1504, not foliated; Nagapen, 'Le catholicisme'. What follows on catechetical instruction is similar to what Vaughan writes in her recent book; both our studies are drawn from the same documentation: Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island, 217-22.
  • 74
    • 37149023796 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On catechetical instruction, Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.;
    • On catechetical instruction, Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.;
  • 76
    • 37149001834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Catéchisme historique, contenant en abrégé l'histoire sainte & la doctrine crétienne, first published in about 1689; Fleury's catechism was later banned as heretical.
    • Catéchisme historique, contenant en abrégé l'histoire sainte & la doctrine crétienne, first published in about 1689; Fleury's catechism was later banned as heretical.
  • 78
    • 37149049607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
  • 79
    • 37149007026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier also composed a catechism in French creole. Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island, 218.
    • Caulier also composed a catechism in French creole. Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island, 218.
  • 80
    • 37149016379 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 1 mars 1762, ACM, Recueil 1504, 189r.
    • Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 1 mars 1762, ACM, Recueil 1504, 189r.
  • 81
    • 77951485495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Mascarene Slave-Trade
    • esp
    • Allen, 'The Mascarene Slave-Trade', esp. 37-9.
    • Allen1
  • 82
    • 37148999680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
  • 85
    • 37149019228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Igou to Noiret [île Bourbon], 1734 ou 1735, ACM, Recueil 1504, 235v.
    • Igou to Noiret [île Bourbon], 1734 ou 1735, ACM, Recueil 1504, 235v.
  • 86
    • 37149019543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier, 'Observations sur les derniers écrits de M. Ante. Davelu, Curé de la Paroisse de S. Paul, à l'île de Bourbon', [Paris], 6 mai 1785, ACM, Recueil 1504, 240r.
    • Caulier, 'Observations sur les derniers écrits de M. Ante. Davelu, Curé de la Paroisse de S. Paul, à l'île de Bourbon', [Paris], 6 mai 1785, ACM, Recueil 1504, 240r.
  • 88
    • 37149054042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevq̂ue de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 217V,
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevq̂ue de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 217V,
  • 89
    • 37149043187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Document entitled 'Il y a à I'Isle de France cinq Paroisses', no author, no date, ACM, Recueil 1504, 246r.
    • Document entitled 'Il y a à I'Isle de France cinq Paroisses', no author, no date, ACM, Recueil 1504, 246r.
  • 91
    • 37149049884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gerbeau, La liberté des enfants de Dieu', 52.
    • Gerbeau, La liberté des enfants de Dieu', 52.
  • 92
    • 37149019829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the French Antilles, the Jesuits and Dominicans maintained ecclesiastical plantations, while the Capuchins, who took stricter vows of poverty, normally enjoyed household servants but did not accumulate property in slaves and land. Peabody, A dangerous zeal, 70. For Catholic ecclesiastical plantations and mission slaveholding in other contexts see William Francis Rea, The Economics of the Zambezi Missions, 1580-1759 Rome, 1976, 117-31;
    • In the French Antilles, the Jesuits and Dominicans maintained ecclesiastical plantations, while the Capuchins, who took stricter vows of poverty, normally enjoyed household servants but did not accumulate property in slaves and land. Peabody, 'A dangerous zeal', 70. For Catholic ecclesiastical plantations and mission slaveholding in other contexts see William Francis Rea, The Economics of the Zambezi Missions, 1580-1759 (Rome, 1976), 117-31;
  • 96
    • 37149025039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Igou to Noiret, 236r
    • Igou to Noiret, 236r.
  • 97
    • 37149023783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Document entitled 'Existence des missionnaires à l'l̂e de France', no place, no date [c. 1780], ACM, Recueil 1504, 244r.-248r.
    • Document entitled 'Existence des missionnaires à l'l̂e de France', no place, no date [c. 1780], ACM, Recueil 1504, 244r.-248r.
  • 99
    • 37149048976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 243r.-243v, 247r
    • Ibid. 243r.-243v., 247r.
    • Ibid
  • 100
  • 105
    • 37149017667 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 189v.
    • Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 189v.
  • 106
    • 37149016363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 221V, 222r.
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 221V, 222r.
  • 107
    • 37149054603 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The language is from Caulier, 'Directoire des paroisses'.
    • The language is from Caulier, 'Directoire des paroisses'.
  • 108
    • 37149007654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • These are the words Caulier used to describe the evangelistic technique. Philippe Albert Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220V.
    • These are the words Caulier used to describe the evangelistic technique. Philippe Albert Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220V.
  • 110
    • 34447269004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This publication is discussed in Pier M. Larson, Malagasy at the Mascarenes: Publishing in a servile vernacular before the French Revolution, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 49 July 2007, 582-610
    • This publication is discussed in Pier M. Larson, 'Malagasy at the Mascarenes: Publishing in a servile vernacular before the French Revolution', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 49 (July 2007), 582-610.
  • 111
    • 37149046186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
    • Caulier to Monseigneur L'archevêque de Paris, 20 juillet 1773, 220r.
  • 112
    • 37149000585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid. 221V.
  • 113
    • 37149018906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid. 220r., 222V.
    • , vol.220 r
  • 114
    • 37149003626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Approximately 25 per cent of slaves disembarked at the Cape arrived from Madagascar as compared to some 40 per cent at the Mascarenes. For the ethnic structure of the Cape slave population (which included far more Asians than at the Mascarenes: Some 50 per cent as compared to 10 per cent or less) see Shell, 'The Tower of Babel', 11-39;
    • Approximately 25 per cent of slaves disembarked at the Cape arrived from Madagascar as compared to some 40 per cent at the Mascarenes. For the ethnic structure of the Cape slave population (which included far more Asians than at the Mascarenes: Some 50 per cent as compared to 10 per cent or less) see Shell, 'The Tower of Babel', 11-39;
  • 115
    • 84920612538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Indian Ocean slavery and its demise in the Cape colony
    • Gwyn Campbell ed, London
    • Nigel Worden, 'Indian Ocean slavery and its demise in the Cape colony', in Gwyn Campbell (ed.), Abolition and its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London, 2005), 29-49.
    • (2005) Abolition and its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia , pp. 29-49
    • Worden, N.1
  • 116
    • 37149044986 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Malagasy and their language at the Cape are the subject of forthcoming publication by this author. See also Bee Jordaan, Splintered Crucifix: Early Pioneers for Christendom on Madagascar and the Cape of Good Hope (Cape Town, 1969), 123-4;
    • Malagasy and their language at the Cape are the subject of forthcoming publication by this author. See also Bee Jordaan, Splintered Crucifix: Early Pioneers for Christendom on Madagascar and the Cape of Good Hope (Cape Town, 1969), 123-4;
  • 117
    • 37149049284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vincent Huyghues-Belrose, Les premiers missionnaires Protestants de Madagascar, 1795-1827 (Paris, 2001), 188-211. Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 189r.
    • Vincent Huyghues-Belrose, Les premiers missionnaires Protestants de Madagascar, 1795-1827 (Paris, 2001), 188-211." Teste to 'Monseigneur', Isle de Bourbon, 189r.
  • 122
    • 0039054928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction
    • Linda M. Heywood ed, Cambridge, The contributors to this do not seem to agree on the ease of interlingual communication among Central Africans in the Americas
    • Linda M. Heywood, 'Introduction', in Linda M. Heywood (ed.), Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora (Cambridge, 2002), 13. The contributors to this volume do not seem to agree on the ease of interlingual communication among Central Africans in the Americas.
    • (2002) Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora , pp. 13
    • Heywood, L.M.1
  • 123
    • 37149032464 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Catéchisme abrégé à l'usage des Insulaires de Madagascar, par M. l'Abbé Ante. Flageollet', BL.MD.Add.Mss.18131.133r.-158v. For more on this catechism see Randriamboavonjy Razoharinoro, 'Fikarohana momba ny teny malagasy tamin'ny taon-jato faha-XVIII', Tantara, 9 (1980), 42-109.
    • Catéchisme abrégé à l'usage des Insulaires de Madagascar, par M. l'Abbé Ante. Flageollet', BL.MD.Add.Mss.18131.133r.-158v. For more on this catechism see Randriamboavonjy Razoharinoro, 'Fikarohana momba ny teny malagasy tamin'ny taon-jato faha-XVIII', Tantara, 9 (1980), 42-109.
  • 126
    • 37149042886 scopus 로고
    • Abstract of MSS. Books and Papers respecting Madagascar during the possession of the Mauritius by the French. Presented by Sir W. M. Farquhar to the British Museum
    • For the identity and role of these works in biblical translation, see
    • For the identity and role of these works in biblical translation, see W. J. Hamilton, 'Abstract of MSS. Books and Papers respecting Madagascar during the possession of the Mauritius by the French. Presented by Sir W. M. Farquhar to the British Museum', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 20 (1850), 75-88;
    • (1850) Journal of the Royal Geographical Society , vol.20 , pp. 75-88
    • Hamilton, W.J.1
  • 127
    • 34447267736 scopus 로고
    • Among old Malagasy books in the British Museum: The "Great Dictionary of Madagascar" by M. De Froberville
    • William Edward Cousins, 'Among old Malagasy books in the British Museum: the "Great Dictionary of Madagascar" by M. De Froberville', Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, (1889), 65-72.
    • (1889) Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine , pp. 65-72
    • Edward Cousins, W.1


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