British Asia and British Atlantic: Comparisons and connections

William and Mary Quarterly

Volumn 63, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 693-712

  Stern, Philip J ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 61049314259     PISSN: 00435597     EISSN: 1933-769     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. David Armitage, "Three Concepts of Atlantic History," in The British Atlantic World, 1500-1800, ed. Armitage and Michael J. Braddick (Basingstoke, Eng., 2002), 11
2. For examples of Atlantic history in both practice and theory, see Bernard Bailyn, "The Idea of Atlantic History," Itinerario 20, no. 1 (1996): 19-44
3. Nicholas Canny, "Writing Atlantic History; Or, Reconfiguring the History of Colonial British America," Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (December 1999): 1093-1114
4. Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600-1800 (Cambridge, 1999)
5. Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Cambridge, Mass, 2005)
6. Elizabeth Mancke and Carole Shammas, eds., The Creation of the British Atlantic World, Anglo-America in the Transatlantic World (Baltimore, 2005)
7. An example of these concerns can be found in this summer's AHR forum, "AHR Forum: Oceans of History," American Historical Review III, no. 3 (June 2006), though the forum notably neglects the Indian Ocean
8. See also Martin W. Lewis and Kären E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography (Berkeley, Calif., 1997)
9. The phrase "oceans connect" is borrowed from Wigen and Jessica Harland-Jacobs, eds., "Oceans Connect," a special issue of Geographical Review 89, no. 2 (April 1999)
10. For examples of Indian Ocean history in theory and practice, see Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, eds., India and the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800 (Calcutta, India, 1987)
11. K. N. Chaudhuri, Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1990)
12. David Arnold, "The Indian Ocean as a Disease Zone, 1500-1950," South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 14, no. 2 (December 1991): 1-21
13. André Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, 2d ed., 3 vols. (Leiden, Netherlands, 1991)
14. Gupta, Rudrangshu Mukherjee, and Lakshmi Subramanian, Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean World: Essays in Honour of Ashin Das Gupta (Delhi, India, 1998)
15. Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea (Delhi, India, 1998)
16. Uma Das Gupta, comp., The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500-1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta (New Delhi, India, 2001)
17. Sugata Bose, "Space and Time on the Indian Ocean Rim: Theory and History," in Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, ed. Leila Tarazi Fawaz and C. A. Bayly (New York, 2002), 365-88
18. Milo Kearney, The Indian Ocean in World History, Themes in World History (London, 2004)
19. M. N. Pearson, The World of the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800: Studies in Economic, Social and Cultural History, Variorum Collected Studies Series (Aldershot, Eng., 2005)
20. Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (Cambridge, Mass., 2006)
21. For comparisons among European empires in the Atlantic, see J. H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 2006)
22. See also Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France, c. 1500-c. 1800 (New Haven, Conn., 1995)
23. Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World, 1492-1640 (Cambridge, 1995)
24. Elizabeth Mancke, "Empire and State," in Armitage and Braddick, British Atlantic World, 175-95
25. The Macaulay quotation comes from Thomas Babington Macaulay, "Lord Clive" (1840), in Critical and Historical Essays Contributed to The Edinburgh Review (London, 1884), 526
26. The Seeley quotation is from J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of England, ed. John Gross (Chicago, 1971), 12
27. See also Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (Oxford, Eng., 2004)
28. Harlow's "swing to the East" thesis was first presented in Vincent T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1765-1795, 2 vols. (London, 1952-64)
29. See also P. J. Marshall, "The First British Empire," in Historiography, ed. Robin W. Winks, Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, Eng., 1999), 43-44
30. For a tour de force revision of the Harlow thesis and an excellent example of envisioning Britain's Atlantic and Asia in a single framework, see P. J. Marshall, The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America, c. 1750-1783 (Oxford, Eng., 2005)
31. See also Peter Marshall, "The First and Second British Empires: A Question of Demarcation," History: The Journal of the Historical Association 49, no. 165 (February 1964): 13-23
32. C. A. Bayly, "The Second British Empire," in Winks, Historiography, 60-64
33. David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire, Ideas in Context (Cambridge, 2000), 2-3
34. Sanjay Subrahmanyam has made the argument that this emphasis on northern European innovation is part of a long-standing prejudice in the literature - founded to some extent on Max Weber's concept of the relationship between a Protestant ethic and modern capitalism - that favors the northern European, Protestant companies over those of the Catholic and supposedly ostentatious and superstitious Iberians (Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History [London, 1993], 270-77)
35. Nicholas Canny, "Writing Early Modern History: Ireland, Britain, and the Wider World," Historical Journal 46, no. 3 (September 2003): 740
36. See also J. G. A. Pocock, "British History: A Plea for a New Subject," Journal of Modern History 47, no. 4 (December 1975)
37. Pocock, "The Limits and Divisions of British History: In Search of the Unknown Subject," American Historical Review 87, no. 2 (April 1982): 311-36
38. David Armitage, "Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?" American Historical Review 104, no. 2 (April 1999): 427-45
39. Pocock, "The New British History in Atlantic Perspective: An Antipodean Commentary," American Historical Review 104, no. 2 (April 1999): 490-500
40. Philip Lawson self-consciously adapted Pocock's program of discussing a broader world to late-eighteenth-century metropolitan politics, particularly "the fundamental importance of Indian issues to the history of the 1760S and early 1770s" (Lawson, "The Missing Link: The Imperial Dimension in Understanding Hanoverian Britain," Historical Journal 29, no. 3 [September 1986]: 751)
41. Sudipta Sen, conversely, responded to Pocock's argument by identifying eighteenth-century British India as a colonial frontier of the British state (Sen, "Colonial Frontiers of the Georgian State: East India Company's Rule in India," Journal of Historical Sociology 7, no. 4 [December 1994]: 368-92
42. Sen, Distant Sovereignty: National Imperialism and the Origins of British India [New York, 2002], chap. 1)
43. See also Lucy S. Sutherland, The East India Company in Eighteenth-Century Politics (Oxford, 1952)
44. H. V. Bowen, Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics, 1757-1773 (Cambridge, 1991)
45. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833 (Cambridge, 2006)
46. Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, esp. 1
47. See also Susan S. Bean, Yankee India: American Commercial and Cultural Encounters with India in the Age of Sail, 1784-1860 (Salem, Mass., 2001)
48. H. V. Bowen, "Perceptions from the Periphery: Colonial American Views of Britain's Asiatic Empire, 1756-1783," in Negotiated Empires: Centers and Peripheries in the Americas, 1500-1820, ed. Christine Daniels and Michael V. Kennedy (New York, 2002), 283-300
49. David Hancock, "'An Undiscovered Ocean of Commerce Laid Open': India, Wine and the Emerging Atlantic Economy, 1703-1813," in The Worlds of the East India Company, ed. H. V. Bowen, Margarette Lincoln, and Nigel Rigby (Woodbridge, Eng., 2002), 153-68
50. John E. Crowley, "A Visual Empire: Seeing the British Atlantic World from a Global British Perspective," in Mancke and Shammas, Creation of the British Atlantic World, chap. 12
51. For a particularly effective articulation of this idea of a "global eighteenth century," see Felicity A. Nussbaum, ed., The Global Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 2003)
52. See also H. V. Bowen, "British Conceptions of Global Empire, 1756-83," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 26, no. 3 (September 1998): 1-27. One can see a parallel between the kinds of connections being suggested here and John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson's argument, which maintained that by only recognizing formal colonies as part of the history of the British Empire imperial historians had ignored a fundamental aspect of empire (what they called informal empire) and had erected a misleading narrative of the history of the British Empire itself (which eschewed, with the exception of India, imperial history in the period before the late nineteenth century)
53. Their famous iceberg metaphor was made in the opening paragraph to their seminal article, Gallagher and Robinson, "The Imperialism of Free Trade," Economic History Review, 2d ser., 6, no. 1 (1953): 1
54. For examples of transcending the Atlantic through a kind of world history, see, for example, the pieces by Alison Games and Peter A. Coclanis in this Forum (William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 63, no. 4 [October 2006]: 675-92, 725-42)
55. as well as Ian K. Steele, "Exploding Colonial American History: Amerindian, Atlantic, and Global Perspectives," Reviews in American History 26, no. 1 (March 1988): 83
56. Jerry H. Bentley, "Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History," American Historical Review 101, no. 3 (June 1996): 749-70
57. Ian Tyrrell, "Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire," Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (December 1999): 1015-44
58. Coclanis, "Drang Nach Osten: Bernard Bailyn, the World-Island, and the Idea of Atlantic History," Journal of World History 13, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 169-82
59. Canny, Historical Journal 46: 723-47
60. Coclanis, "ReOrienting Atlantic History: The Global Dimensions of the 'Western' Rice Trade," in The Atlantic in Global History, 1500-2000, ed. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Erik R. Seeman (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2006), III-28
61. For an older but stimulating example of uniting the history of the early United States with that of India, see Holden Furber's argument that early U.S. trade to India, even in the wake of the Revolution, was characterized by an "astonishing forbearance and friendliness" between Americans and Britons (Furber, "The Beginnings of American Trade with India, 1784-1812," New England Quarterly n, no. 2 [June 1938]: 265 [quotation])
62. On "oceanic" and "littoral" studies, see Jerry H. Bentley, "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks of Historical Analysis," Geographical Review 89, no. 2 (April 1999): 215-24
63. On Higginson and Yale, see Bernard C. Steiner, "Two New England Rulers of Madras, South Atlantic Quarterly 1, no. 3 (July 1902): 209-23
64. Gauri Viswanathan, "Yale College and the Culture of British Imperialism," Yale Journal of Criticism 7, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 1-30, esp. 4-10
65. Cotton Mather's reference was largely to the Dutch made in a 1700 sermon (Mather, A Pillar of Gratitude; Or, A brief Recapitulation, of the Matchless favours with which the God of Heaven hath obliged the Hearty Praises of His New-English Israel ... [Boston, 1700], 45-48)
66. The debate on the origins of the flag is encapsulated in Charles Fawcett, "The Striped Flag of the East India Company, and Its Connexion with the American 'Stars and Stripes,'" Mariner's Mirror 23, no. 4 (October 1937): 449-76
67. Armitage, "Three Concepts of Atlantic History," 15, 18-21 (quotation, 18)
68. See J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, N.J., 1975)
69. See, esp., Andrew Fitzmaurice, "The Civic Solution to the Crisis of English Colonization 1609-1625," Historical Journal 42, no. 1 (March 1999): 25-51
70. Fitzmaurice, Humanism and America: An Intellectual History of English Colonisation 1500-1625, Ideas in Context (Cambridge, 2003)
71. Alexander B. Haskell, "'The Affections of the People': Ideology and the Politics of State Building in Colonial Virginia 1607-1754" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2004)
72. This contention that the East India Company needs to be understood first as a body politic, not a commercial corporation, is part of a larger argument that forms the basis for a book-lenght study I am working on. See also Philip Jared Stern, "'One Body Corporate and Politick': The Growth of the English India Company-State in the Later Seventeenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2004)
73. On Josiah Child's American connections, see K. N. Chaudhuri, "The World-System East of Longitude 20: The European Role in Asia, 1500-1750," Review 5, no. 2 (Fall 1981): 229
74. Bruce Lenman, "The East India Company and the Emperor Aurangzeb," History Today 37, no.2 (February 1987): 26
75. Andrea Finkelstein, Harmony and the Balance: An Intellectual History of Seventeenth-Century English Economic Thought (Ann Arbor, Mich., 2000), 181-85. For these examples of comparisons between company settlements and those in the Americas, see East India Company Court of Committees to Fort St. David, Mar. 6, 1694/5, British Library, Oriental and India Office Collection, India Office Records, E/3/92, fols. 400-401; East India Company Court of Committees to St. Helena, May 6, 1685, India Office Records, E/3/90, fols. 272-74, Apr. 5, 1689, India Office Records, E/3/92, fol. 17
76. On English and colonial city planning, see Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660-1770, Oxford Studies in Social History (Oxford, Eng., 1989), 85-101
77. Diane Shafer Graham, "Planting, Planning and Design: A Comparative Study of English Colonial Cities Founded in India, North America, and the Caribbean, 1660-1710" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 2001)
78. Thomas Pownall's comparison can be found in Pownall, The Right, Interest, and Duty, of Government, As concerned in The Affairs of the East Indies (London, 1773), 7
79. On early English interests in Africa, see P. E. H. Hair and Robin Law, "The English in Western Africa to 1700," in The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century, ed. Nicholas Canny, Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, Eng., 1998), 245. David Ramsey's observation is discussed by Pagden, Lords of All the World, 64
80. On the legal and intellectual foundations for the papal bulls and the English charters, see, among others, James Muldoon, "The Contribution of the Medieval Canon Lawyers to the Formation of International Law," Traditio 28 (1972): 497
81. Muldoon, "Papal Responsibility for the Infidel: Another Look at Alexander VI's Inter Caetera" Catholic Historical Review 64, no. 2 (April 1978): 184
82. Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford, Eng., 1999), chaps. 1-3
83. Muldoon, "Discovery, Grant, Charter, Conquest, or Purchase: John Adams on the Legal Basis for English Possession of North America," in The Many Legalities of Early America, ed. Christopher L. Tomlins and Bruce H. Mann (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001), 31
84. Sen, Distant Sovereignty, 5
85. Ken MacMillan, "Common and Civil Law? Taking Possession of the English Empire in America, 1575-1630," Canadian Journal of History 38, no. 3 (December 2003): 415-18
86. "Letters Patents, Granted to the Governor and Company of Merchants of London, Trading to the East-Indies, Relating to the Island of Bombay: Bearing Date the Twenty-Seventh of March, in the Twentieth Year of the Reign of Charles II, Anno Domini, One Thousand Six Hundred and Sixty-Nine," in Charters granted to the East-India Company from 1601 (London, 1773), 83
87. Ibid Clarendon quoted in J. P. De Souza, "The Population of Bombay at the Beginning of British Rule," Journal of Indian History 50, pt. 1, no. 148 (April 1972): 90
88. On the "manor of Greenwich" formula, see Michael Craton, "Property and Propriety: Land Tenure and Slave Property in the Creation of a British West Indian Plantocracy, 1612-1740," in Early Modern Conceptions of Property, ed. John Brewer and Susan Staves, Consumption and Culture in the 17th and 18th Centuries (London, 1995), 499
89. B. H. McPherson, "Revisiting the Manor of East Greenwich," American Journal of Legal History 42, no. 1 (January 1998): 35-56. The question in the American context centered on whether the phrase located the grant within East Greenwich or determined it to be a holding like that of East Greenwich
90. See [Benjamin Franklin], "On the Tenure of the Manor of East Gteenwich," (London) Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, Jan. 11, 1766. Similar arguments that centered on the question of the extent of parliamentary jurisdiction were made by John Adams, though not concerning the manor of Greenwich formula in particular (Muldoon, "Discovery, Grant, Charter, Conquest, or Purchase")
91. William Blackstone's argument about companies and treason can be found in Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Oxford, Eng., 1765), 1: 464
92. St. George Tucker, Blackstone's Commentaries: With Notes of Reference, to the Constitution and Laws, of the Federal Government of the United States; and of the Commonwealth of Virginia (Philadelphia, 1803), 1: 405
93. For an excellent example of a comparison among these companies, see Elizabeth Mancke, "Chartered Enterprises and the Evolution of the British Atlantic World," in Mancke and Shammas, Creation of the British Atlantic World, chap. 10
94. On Darien, see G. P. Insh, "The Founding of the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies," Scottish Historical Review 21, no. 84 (July 1924): 288-95
95. George Pratt Insh, The Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies (London, 1932)
96. David Armitage, "The Scottish Vision of Empire: Intellectual Origins of the Darien Venture," in A Union for Empire: Political Thought and the British Union of 1707, ed. John Robertson (Cambridge, 1995), 97-118
97. Ignacio Gallup-Diaz, The Door of the Seas and Key to the Universe: Indian Politics and Imperial Rivalry in the Darién, 1640-1750 (New York, 2004)
98. Andrew Mackillop, "Accessing Empire: Scotland, Europe, Britain, and the Asia Trade, 1695-c. 1750," Itinerario 29, no. 3 (2005): 8-11
99. See also the accounts in Michael Fry, The Scottish Empire (Edinburgh, Scotland, 2001)
100. T. M. Devine, Scotland's Empire, 1600-1815 (London, 2003)
101. On the early attempts to unite East and West through the Northwest Passage, see Glyn Williams, Voyages of Delusion: The Quest for the Northwest Passage (New Haven, Conn., 2003)
102. Carole Shammas, introduction to Mancke and Shammas, Creation of the British Atlantic World, 6. Robert Douglas noted that he had heard William Paterson bragging about his ideas in Amsterdam as early as 1687. See Robert Douglas to [?], Sept. 5, 1696, National Library of Scotland, ADV 83.7.4, fols. 23-24. In 1701 Paterson wrote, "After all my troubles disappointments, and Afflictions, in promoting this design during the Course of the last Seventeen years, It is now with no small Satisfaction I take this oppertunity of proposing so hopefull an Accession to the Dominions and Greatness of your Majesty" ([Paterson] to William III, as preface to his proposal for settling on the Isthmus of Darien, British Library, Add. MSS 12437, fol. 2 [quotation], fol. 6 ["this their footing in the West"]). Paterson to Scottish Company Court of Directors, Jan 17, 1699/1700, National Library of Scotland, ADV 83.7.5, fol. 56 ("Door of the Seas")
103. Robert Douglas, for one, correctly inferred the location of the Scottish Company's closely guarded planned colony (Douglas to [?], Sept. 5, 1696, National Library of Scotland, ADV 83.7.4, fols.; 23-24; [William Paterson], Proposal to William III, British Library, Add. MSS 12437, fols. 22, 27; Paterson to Scottish Company Court of Directors, Jan. 17, 1699/1700, National Library of Scotland, ADV 83.7.5, fol. 55)
104. James Knight to [Newcastle], Nov. 10, 1739, British Library, Add. MSS 32604, fol. 12; Samuel Rogerson to Alexander Mounsey, Feb. 2, 1854, National Archives of Scotland, GD 1/620/60
105. On piracy in the late seventeenth century, see I. K. Steele, Politics of Colonial Policy: The Board of Trade in Colonial Administration, 1696-1720 (Oxford, Eng., 1968), chap. 3
106. Robert C. Ritchie, Captain Kidd and the War against the Pirates (Cambridge, Mass., 1986)
107. James II, "Declaration of Powers to Robert Holmes for Suppressing Pirates in America," Aug. 21, 1687, Public Record Office, Colonial Office, 324/5, fol. 5; James II, "Circular letter for apprehending and deterring pirates," Oct. 13, 1687, PRO, CO 324/5, fols. 5-6. For some examples of earlier concerns about piracy in the English context
108. see Barbara Fuchs, "Faithless Empires: Pirates, Renegadoes, and the English Nation" English Literary History 67, no. 1 (Spring 2000): esp. 48. For the legal position that Jacobites might be considered pirates, see Charles Hedges to the Admiralty, Dec. 12, 1695, British Library, Add. MSS 24107, fol. 57
109. On Roe's complaints about piracy in the East, see Charles Grey, The Merchant Venturers of London: A Record of Far Eastern Trade and Piracy during the Seventeenth Century (London, 1932), 194-212
110. Janice E. Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe, Princeton Studies in International History and Politics (Princeton, N.J., 1994), 109
111. Ian K. Steele, "The Anointed, the Appointed, and the Elected: Governance of the British Empire, 1689-1784," in The Eighteenth Century, ed. P. J. Marshall, Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, Eng., 1998), 107. Among other demands, the company insisted that the new governor of New York, Earl Bellamont, be given special instructions concerning pirates. For his part, Bellamont responded that he would do his best to prevent piracy and attempted to get himself a squadron of Royal Navy frigates to accomplish the task (East India Company, Minutes of the Court of Committees, Sept. 28, 1697, India Office Records, B/41, fol. 200, Oct. 8, 1697, B/41, fol. 202; "Extracts of Letters Concerning Pirates," Feb. 12, 1697/8, India Office Records, H/36, fol. 325)
112. For the initial proposals of this bill, see Privy Council Register, Feb. 3, 1694/5, National Archives (formerly Public Records Office), PC 2/76, fol. 49;
113. Charles Hedges, Draft of Piracy Bill, Presented to the Board Apr. 6, 1698, National Archives, CO 323/2, fols. 289-93. While the bill was being debated, the Boatd of Trade suggested, the Admiralty could be directed to be vigilant against piracy, and each colony could be encouraged to pass its own law based on the Jamaica model. See "Representation to the King about Pirates," Dec. 9, 1697, National Archives, CO 324/6, fol. 106. To trace the development of some of the deliberation over these new piracy laws and offices, see "Draught of a Bill," May 12, 1698, National Archives, CO 324/6, fols. 143-57; Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4: 5; Privy Council Register, Apr. 28, 1699, National Archives, PC 2/77, fol. 330; Privy Council Register, Mar. 6, 1700/1701, National Archives, PC 2/78, fols. 166-67, 162-63; Board of Trade to William III, Mar. 4, 1700/1701, National Archives, CO 324/7, fols. 376-77
114. The anxiety about corruption in the colonies was so dramatic that the Board of Trade sent a courier to hand deliver the act and the 1701 proclamation to each governor; the courier was also instructed to furnish intelligence on each colony, following a questionnaire of thirty distinct items normally reported on by the governors (Board of Trade to George Larkin, Apr. 19, 1701, National Archives, CO 324/7, fols. 417-18; General Heads of Enquiry, Apr. 19, 1701, National Archives, CO 324/7, fols. 418-24). On the connections between this legislation and the East, see P. Bradley Nutting, "The Madagascar Connection: Parliament and Piracy, 1690-1701," American Journal of Legal History 22, no. 1 (January 1978): 202-15
115. On the waning of the supposed American piracy crisis, see Robert C. Ritchie, Pirates: Myths and Realities, James Ford Bell Lectures (Minneapolis, Minn., 1986), 18-19
116. A. Bialuschewski, "The Golden Age of Piracy, 1695-1725: A Reassessment," in The Sea in European History, ed. Luc François and Ann Katherine Isaacs (Pisa, Italy, 2001), 234
117. On the company's turn to the Marathas and the Musqat Arabs, see Muhammad Al-Qāsimā, The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf (London, 1986)
118. Ashin Das Gupta, "India and the Indian Ocean in the Eighteenth Century," in Gupta, World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 200
119. Patricia Risso, "Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during a Long Eighteenth Century," Journal of World History 12, no. 2 (Fall 2001): 293-319
120. For contemporary accounts, see Clement Downing, A Compendious History of the Indian Wars; with An Account of the Rise, Progress, Strength, and Forces of Angria the Pyrate ... (London, 1737)
121. The Arabian Pirate; Or, Authentic History and Fighting Adventures of Tulagee Angria ... (Newcastle, Eng., [1795?]). The complaint from the East India Company official, Samuel Annesley, the president of the company's factory at Surat, was particularly directed toward what he perceived as a capricious Mughal definition of piracy. See Annesley to Louis de Keiser (Dutch Director at Surat), Feb. 21, 1695/6, India Office Records, G/36/95, fol. 21
122. See Sanjay Subrahmanyam, "Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia," Modern Asian Studies 31, no. 3 (July 1997): 735-62