Canadian practice guidelines for surgical intra-abdominal infections

Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 11-37

  Chow, Anthony W ^a   Evans, Gerald A ^b   Nathens, Avery B ^c   Ball, Chad G ^d   Hansen, Glen ^e   Harding, Godfrey K M ^f   Kirkpatrick, Andrew W ^d   Weiss, Karl ^g   Zhanel, George G ^f  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b QUEEN S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^g MAISONNEUVE ROSEMONT HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANIDULAFUNGIN; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CARBAPENEM DERIVATIVE; CASPOFUNGIN; CEFEPIME; CEFOTAXIME; CEFOXITIN; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEFUROXIME; CILASTATIN PLUS IMIPENEM; CIPROFLOXACIN; DALFOPRISTIN PLUS QUINUPRISTIN; DAPTOMYCIN; ERTAPENEM; FLUCONAZOLE; GENTAMICIN; LINEZOLID; MEROPENEM; METRONIDAZOLE; MICAFUNGIN; MOXIFLOXACIN; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; TIGECYCLINE; TIMENTIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN; VORICONAZOLE;

ABDOMINAL INFECTION; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; APACHE; CANDIDIASIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDICAL SOCIETY; OPERATING ROOM; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; THERAPY EFFECT; TREATMENT DURATION;

EID: 77950845173     PISSN: 17129532     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2010/580340     Document Type: Review

References (258)

1. Solomkin JS, Mazuski JE, Baron EJ, et al. Guidelines for the selection of anti-infective agents for complicated intra-abdominal infections. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:997-1005.
2. Krukowski ZH, Matheson NA. Ten-year computerized audit of infection after abdominal surgery. Br J Surg 1988;75:857-861
3. Weiss G, Meyer F, Lippert H. Infectiological diagnostic problems in tertiary peritonitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2006;391:473-482 (Pubitemid 44337608)
4. Cheadle WG, Spain DA. The continuing challenge of intra-abdominal infection. Am J Surg 2003;186:15S-22S.
5. Christou NV, Barie PS, Dellinger EP, et al. Surgical Infection Society intra-abdominal infection study. Prospective evaluation of management techniques and outcome. Arch Surg 1993;128:193-198
6. Nathens AB, Rotstein OD, Marshall JC. Tertiary peritonitis: Clinical features of a complex nosocomial infection. World J Surg 1998;22:158-163
7. Malangoni MA, Inui T. Peritonitis - The Western experience. World J Emerg Surg 2006;1:25.
8. Marshall JC, Innes M. Intensive care unit management of intra-abdominal infection. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2228-2237 (Pubitemid 37011706)
9. Wong PF, Gilliam AD, Kumar S, et al. Antibiotic regimens for secondary peritonitis of gastrointestinal origin in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005:CD004539.
10. Kish MA. Guide to development of practice guidelines. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:851-854
11. de Meyrick J. The Delphi method and health resarch. Health Education 2003;103:7-16.
12. Bohnen J, Boulanger M, Meakins JL, et al. Prognosis in generalized peritonitis. Relation to cause and risk factors. Arch Surg 1983;118:285-290
13. Mazuski JE, Sawyer RG, Nathens AB, et al. The Surgical Infection Society guidelines on antimicrobial therapy for intra-abdominal infections: Evidence for the recommendations. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2002;3:175-233.
14. Garner JS, Jarvis WR, Emori TG, et al. CDC definitions for nosocomial infections, 1988. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:128-140
15. Montravers P, Chalfine A, Gauzit R, et al. Clinical and therapeutic features of nonpostoperative nosocomial intra-abdominal infections. Ann Surg 2004;239:409-416 (Pubitemid 38229072)
16. Blot S, De Waele JJ. Critical issues in the clinical management of complicated intra-abdominal infections. Drugs 2005;65:1611-1620 (Pubitemid 41138984)
17. Malangoni MA. Evaluation and management of tertiary peritonitis. Am Surg 2000;66:157-161
18. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Richards CL Jr, et al. Estimating health care-associated infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, 2002. Public Health Rep 2007;122:160-166
19. Buijk SL, Gyssens IC, Mouton JW, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ceftazidime in serum and peritoneal exudate during continuous versus intermittent administration to patients with severe intraabdominal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;49:121-128
20. Christou NV. Predicting infectious morbidity in elective operations. Am J Surg 1993;165:52S-8S.
21. Marshall JC. Sepsis: Current status, future prospects. Curr Opin Crit Care 2004;10:250-264 (Pubitemid 38982140)
22. Trapnell JE, Duncan EH. Patterns of incidence in acute pancreatitis. Br Med J 1975;2:179-183
23. McKay CJ, Evans S, Sinclair M, et al. High early mortality rate from acute pancreatitis in Scotland, 1984-1995. Br J Surg 1999;86:1302-1305
24. Worning H. [Acute pancreatitis in Denmark]. Ugeskr Laeger 1994;156:2086-2089
25. Lankisch PG, Assmus C, Pflichthofer D, et al. Which etiology causes the most severe acute pancreatitis? Int J Pancreatol 1999;26:55-57
26. Corfield AP, Cooper MJ, Williamson RC. Acute pancreatitis: A lethal disease of increasing incidence. Gut 1985;26:724-729 (Pubitemid 15045001)
27. NNIS. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report, data summary from October 1986-April 1998. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:522-533
28. Dellinger EP, Oreskovich MR, Wertz MJ, et al. Risk of infection following laparotomy for penetrating abdominal injury. Arch Surg 1984;119:20-27
29. Goins WA, Rodriguez A, Joshi M, et al. Intra-abdominal abscess after blunt abdominal trauma. Ann Surg 1990;212:60-65 (Pubitemid 20215916)
30. Morales CH, Villegas MI, Villavicencio R, et al. Intra-abdominal infection in patients with abdominal trauma. Arch Surg 2004;139:1278-1285 (Pubitemid 39602845)
31. Mulier S, Penninckx F, Verwaest C, et al. Factors affecting mortality in generalized postoperative peritonitis: Multivariate analysis in 96 patients. World J Surg 2003;27:379-384 (Pubitemid 36920106)
32. Dellinger EP, Wertz MJ, Meakins JL, et al. Surgical infection stratification system for intra-abdominal infection. Multicenter trial. Arch Surg 1985;120:21-29
33. Wickel DJ, Cheadle WG, Mercer-Jones MA, et al. Poor outcome from peritonitis is caused by disease acuity and organ failure, not recurrent peritoneal infection. Ann Surg 1997;225:744-753
34. Sturkenboom MC, Goettsch WG, Picelli G, et al. Inappropriate initial treatment of secondary intra-abdominal infections leads to increased risk of clinical failure and costs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005;60:438-443 (Pubitemid 41428476)
35. Krobot K, Yin D, Zhang Q, et al. Effect of inappropriate initial empiric antibiotic therapy on outcome of patients with community-acquired intra-abdominal infections requiring surgery. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004;23:682-687 (Pubitemid 39304322)
36. Bare M, Castells X, Garcia A, et al. Importance of appropriateness of empiric antibiotic therapy on clinical outcomes in intra-abdominal infections. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 2006;22:242-248
37. Mazuski JE. Clinical challenges and unmet needs in the management of complicated intra-abdominal infections. Surg Infect 2005;6:s49-s69.
38. Hynninen M, Wennervirta J, Leppaniemi A, et al. Organ dysfunction and long term outcome in secondary peritonitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2008;393:81-86 (Pubitemid 350196878)
39. Kulkarni SV, Naik AS, Subramanian N Jr. APACHE-II scoring system in perforative peritonitis. Am J Surg 2007;194:549-552
40. Whittmann DH, Condon RE, Walker AP. Peritonitis and intraabdominal infection. In: Schwartz S, ed. Principles of Surgery, 6th edn. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1993:1449-1483
41. Bohnen JM, Mustard RA, Oxholm SE, et al. APACHE II score and abdominal sepsis. A prospective study. Arch Surg 1988;123:225-229
42. Sorensen LT, Hemmingsen U, Kallehave F, et al. Risk factors for tissue and wound complications in gastrointestinal surgery. Ann Surg 2005;241:654-658 (Pubitemid 40397314)
43. Cruse PJ, Foord R. A five-year prospective study of 23,649 surgical wounds. Arch Surg 1973;107:206-210
44. Burger JW, van 't RM, Jeekel J. Abdominal incisions: Techniques and postoperative complications. Scand J Surg 2002;91:315-321
45. Riou JP, Cohen JR, Johnson H Jr. Factors influencing wound dehiscence. Am J Surg 1992;163:324-330
46. Wacha H, Hau T, Dittmer R, et al. Risk factors associated with intraabdominal infections: A prospective multicenter study. Peritonitis Study Group. Langenbecks Arch Surg 1999;384:24-32. (Pubitemid 29225314)
47. Ohmann C, Hau T. Prognostic indices in peritonitis. Hepatogastroenterology 1997;44:937-946
48. Pacelli F, Doglietto GB, Alfieri S, et al. Prognosis in intra-abdominal infections. Multivariate analysis on 604 patients. Arch Surg 1996;131:641-645
49. Solomkin JS, Dellinger EP, Christou NV, et al. Results of a multicenter trial comparing imipenem/cilastatin to tobramycin/clindamycin for intra-abdominal infections. Ann Surg 1990;212:581-591
50. Pitcher WD, Musher DM. Critical importance of early diagnosis and treatment of intra-abdominal infection. Arch Surg 1982;117:328-333 (Pubitemid 12184304)
51. Hopkins JA, Lee JC, Wilson SE. Susceptibility of intra-abdominal isolates at operation: A predictor of postoperative infection. Am Surg 1993;59:791-796
52. Christou NV, Turgeon P, Wassef R, et al. Management of intra-abdominal infections. The case for intraoperative cultures and comprehensive broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage. The Canadian Intra-abdominal Infection Study Group. Arch Surg 1996;131:1193-1201
53. McGilvray ID, Rotstein OD. Management of infection in the surgical patient: An update. Surg Technol Int 2003;11:39-43.
54. Carman RJ, Van Tassell RL, Wilkins TD. The normal intestinal microflora: Ecology, variability and stability. Vet Hum Toxicol 1993;35(Suppl 1):11-14 (Pubitemid 23261031)
55. Gorbach SL, Barza M, Giuliano M, et al. Colonization resistance of the human intestinal microflora: Testing the hypothesis in normal volunteers. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1988;7:98-102. (Pubitemid 18069195)
56. Hao WL, Lee YK. Microflora of the gastrointestinal tract: A review. Methods Mol Biol 2004;268:491-502.
57. DiNubile MJ, Chow JW, Satishchandran V, et al. Acquisition of resistant bowel flora during a double-blind randomized clinical trial of ertapenem versus piperacillin-tazobactam therapy for intraabdominal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:3217-3221 (Pubitemid 41060564)
58. Hebuterne X. Gut changes attributed to ageing: Effects on intestinal microflora. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003;6:49-54. (Pubitemid 40684617)
59. Nord CE, Kager L, Heimdahl A. Impact of antimicrobial agents on the gastrointestinal microflora and the risk of infections. Am J Med 1984;76:99-106. (Pubitemid 14145873)
60. Giamarellou H, Kanellakopoulou K. Bacteriologic and therapeutic considerations in intra-abdominal surgical infections. Anaerobe 1997;3:207-212 (Pubitemid 27423154)
61. Barie PS, Rotstein OD, Dellinger EP, et al. The cost-effectiveness of cefepime plus metronidazole versus imipenem/cilastatin in the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2004;5:269-280
62. Kochhar P, Suvarna V, Duttagupta S, et al. Cost-effectiveness study comparing cefoperazone-sulbactam to a three-drug combination for treating intraabdominal infections in an Indian health-care setting. Value Health 2008;11(Suppl 1):S33-8.
63. Panhofer P, Izay B, Riedl M, et al. Age, microbiology and prognostic scores help to differentiate between secondary and tertiary peritonitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2009;394:265-271
64. Delibegovic S. Pathophysiological changes in peritonitis. Med Arh 2007;61:109-113
65. Monteiro MC, Danielou A, Piemont Y, et al. Bacterial cultures and empirical antimicrobial therapy for community-acquired secondary peritonitis. J Chir (Paris) 2007;144:486-491
66. Shinagawa N, Tanaka K, Mikamo H, et al. Bacteria isolated from perforation peritonitis and their antimicrobial susceptibilities. Jpn J Antibiot 2007;60:206-220 (Pubitemid 47442167)
67. Pungpapong S, Alvarez S, Hellinger WC, et al. Peritonitis after liver transplantation: Incidence, risk factors, microbiology profiles, and outcome. Liver Transpl 2006;12:1244-1252 (Pubitemid 44194593)
68. O'Hara AM, Shanahan F. The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep 2006;7:688-693
69. Guarner F. Enteric flora in health and disease. Digestion 2006;73(Suppl 1):5-12.
70. Chow JW, Satishchandran V, Snyder TA, et al. In vitro susceptibilities of aerobic and facultative gram-negative bacilli isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections worldwide: The 2002 Study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance Trends (SMART). Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2005;6:439-448
71. Goldstein EJ, Snydman DR. Intra-abdominal infections: Review of the bacteriology, antimicrobial susceptibility and the role of ertapenem in their therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;53(Suppl 2):ii29-ii36.
72. Mai V, Morris JG Jr. Colonic bacterial flora: Changing understandings in the molecular age. J Nutr 2004;134:459-464 (Pubitemid 38141833)
73. Brook I. Microbiology and management of intra-abdominal infections in children. Pediatr Int 2003;45:123-129 (Pubitemid 36578927)
74. Brook I. Microbiology of polymicrobial abscesses and implications for therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002;50:805-810 (Pubitemid 36032798)
75. Onderdonk AB, Weinstein WM, Sullivan NM, et al. Experimental intra-abdominal abscesses in rats: Quantitative bacteriology of infected animals. Infect Immun 1974;10:1256-1259
76. Weinstein WM, Onderdonk AB, Bartlett JG, et al. Experimental intra-abdominal abscesses in rats: Development of an experimental model. Infect Immun 1974;10:1250-1255
77. Condon RE. Microbiology of intraabdominal infection and contamination. Eur J Surg Suppl 1996;576:9-12.
78. Bohnen JM, Solomkin JS, Dellinger EP, et al. Guidelines for clinical care: Anti-infective agents for intra-abdominal infection. A Surgical Infection Society policy statement. Arch Surg 1992;127:83-89
79. Laterre PF, Colardyn F, Delmee M, et al. Antimicrobial therapy for intra-abdominal infections: Guidelines from the Infectious Disease Advisory Board (IDAB). Acta Chir Belg 2006;106:2-21. (Pubitemid 43416668)
80. Goldstein EJ, Citron DM, Goldman PJ, et al. National hospital survey of anaerobic culture and susceptibility methods: III. Anaerobe 2008;14:68-72.
81. Dougherty SH. Antimicrobial culture and susceptibility testing has little value for routine management of secondary bacterial peritonitis. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25(Suppl 2):S258-S261. (Pubitemid 27392583)
82. Bilik R, Burnweit C, Shandling B. Is abdominal cavity culture of any value in appendicitis? Am J Surg 1998;175:267-270
83. Kokoska ER, Silen ML, Tracy TF Jr, et al. The impact of intraoperative culture on treatment and outcome in children with perforated appendicitis. J Pediatr Surg 1999;34:749-753
84. Falagas ME, Barefoot L, Griffith J, et al. Risk factors leading to clinical failure in the treatment of intra-abdominal or skin/soft tissue infectins. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996;15:913-921 (Pubitemid 27060990)
85. Snydman DR, Jacobus NV, McDermott LA, et al. National survey on the susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group: Report and analysis of trends in the United States from 1997 to 2004. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:1649-1655
86. Goldstein EJ, Citron DM, Vaidya SA, et al. In vitro activity of 11 antibiotics against 74 anaerobes isolated from pediatric intraabdominal infections. Anaerobe 2006;12:63-66
87. Ulger TN, Celik C, Cakici O, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Bacteroides fragilis and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron strains isolated from clinical specimens and human intestinal microbiota. Anaerobe 2004;10:255-259
88. Paterson DL, Rossi F, Baquero F, et al. In vitro susceptibilities of aerobic and facultative Gram-negative bacilli isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections worldwide: The 2003 Study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance Trends (SMART). J Antimicrob Chemother 2005;55:965-973
89. Rossi F, Baquero F, Hsueh PR, et al. In vitro susceptibilities of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections worldwide: 2004 results from SMART (Study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance Trends). J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;58:205-210
90. Seguin P, Laviolle B, Chanavaz C, et al. Factors associated with multidrug-resistant bacteria in secondary peritonitis: Impact on antibiotic therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006;12:980-985 (Pubitemid 44322570)
91. Aldridge KE, Ashcraft D, O'Brien M, et al. Bacteremia due to Bacteroides fragilis group: Distribution of species, beta-lactamase production, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:148-153
92. Wybo I, Pierard D, Verschraegen I, et al. Third Belgian multicentre survey of antibiotic susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007;59:132-139 (Pubitemid 46017916)
93. Neuhauser MM, Weinstein RA, Rydman R, et al. Antibiotic resistance among gram-negative bacilli in US intensive care units: Implications for fluoroquinolone use. JAMA 2003;289:885-888 (Pubitemid 37430348)
94. MacDougall C, Powell JP, Johnson CK, et al. Hospital and community fluoroquinolone use and resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in 17 US hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:435-440
95. Poenaru D, De Santis M, Christou NV. Imipenem versus tobramycin - antianaerobe antibiotic therapy in intra-abdominal infections. Can J Surg 1990;33:415-422 (Pubitemid 20357269)
96. Brismar B, Malmborg AS, Tunevall G, et al. Piperacillin-tazobactam versus imipenem-cilastatin for treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:2766-2773
97. Geroulanos S, Marathias K, Kriaras J, et al. Cephalosporins in surgical prophylaxis. J Chemother 2001;13 Spec No 1:23-26
98. Babinchak T, Ellis-Grosse E, Dartois N, et al. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline for the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections: Analysis of pooled clinical trial data. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41(Suppl 5):S354-S367. (Pubitemid 41170382)
99. Condon RE, Walker AP, Sirinek KR, et al. Meropenem versus tobramycin plus clindamycin for treatment of intraabdominal infections: Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:544-550
100. Dougherty SH, Sirinek KR, Schauer PR, et al. Ticarcillin/clavulanate compared with clindamycin/gentamicin (with or without ampicillin) for the treatment of intra-abdominal infections in pediatric and adult patients. Am Surg 1995;61:297-303.
101. Solomkin JS, Wilson SE, Christou NV, et al. Results of a clinical trial of clinafloxacin versus imipenem/cilastatin for intraabdominal infections. Ann Surg 2001;233:79-87.
102. Malangoni MA, Song J, Herrington J, et al. Randomized controlled trial of moxifloxacin compared with piperacillin-tazobactam and amoxicillin-clavulanate for the treatment of complicated intraabdominal infections. Ann Surg 2006;244:204-211
103. Solomkin JS, Reinhart HH, Dellinger EP, et al. Results of a randomized trial comparing sequential intravenous/oral treatment with ciprofloxacin plus metronidazole to imipenem/cilastatin for intra-abdominal infections. The Intra-Abdominal Infection Study Group. Ann Surg 1996;223:303-315
104. Barie PS, Vogel SB, Dellinger EP, et al. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial comparing cefepime plus metronidazole with imipenem-cilastatin in the treatment of complicated intraabdominal infections. Cefepime Intra-abdominal Infection Study Group. Arch Surg 1997;132:1294-1302
105. Ohlin B, Cederberg A, Forssell H, et al. Piperacillin/tazobactam compared with cefuroxime/metronidazole in the treatment of intraabdominal infections. Eur J Surg 1999;165:875-884
106. Heuer JG, Zhang T, Zhao J, et al. Adoptive transfer of in vitrostimulated CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells increases bacterial clearance and improves survival in polymicrobial sepsis. J Immunol 2005;174:7141-7146
107. Chung DR, Kasper DL, Panzo RJ, et al. CD4+ T cells mediate abscess formation in intra-abdominal sepsis by an IL-17-dependent mechanism. J Immunol 2003;170:1958-1963
108. Finlay-Jones JJ, Davies KV, Sturm LP, et al. Inflammatory processes in a murine model of intra-abdominal abscess formation. J Leukoc Biol 1999;66:583-587
109. Chong AJ, Dellinger EP. Current treatment of intraabdominal infections. Surg Technol Int 2005;14:29-33.
110. Cohn SM, Lipsett PA, Buchman TG, et al. Comparison of intravenous/oral ciprofloxacin plus metronidazole versus piperacillin/tazobactam in the treatment of complicated intraabdominal infections. Ann Surg 2000;232:254-262
111. Sitges-Serra A, Lopez MJ, Girvent M, et al. Postoperative enterococcal infection after treatment of complicated intra-abdominal sepsis. Br J Surg 2002;89:361-367
112. Burnett RJ, Haverstock DC, Dellinger EP, et al. Definition of the role of enterococcus in intraabdominal infection: Analysis of a prospective randomized trial. Surgery 1995;118:716-721
113. Malangoni MA. Contributions to the management of intraabdominal infections. Am J Surg 2005;190:255-259
114. Bohnen JM. Operative management of intra-abdominal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1992;6:511-523
115. Oliva ME, Rekha A, Yellin A, et al. A multicenter trial of the efficacy and safety of tigecycline versus imipenem/cilastatin in patients with complicated intra-abdominal infections. BMC Infect Dis 2005;5:88-99.
116. Basoli A, Chirletti P, Cirino E, et al. A prospective, double-blind, multicenter, randomized trial comparing ertapenem 3 vs >or=5 days in community-acquired intraabdominal infection. J Gastrointest Surg 2008;12:592-600.
117. Kempf P, Bauernfeind A, Muller A, et al. Meropenem monotherapy versus cefotaxime plus metronidazole combination treatment for serious intra-abdominal infections. Infection 1996;24:473-479
118. Jauregui LE, Appelbaum PC, Fabian TC, et al. A randomized clinical study of cefoperazone and sulbactam versus gentamicin and clindamycin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25:423-433
119. Berne TV, Yellin AW, Appleman MD, et al. Antibiotic management of surgically treated gangrenous or perforated appendicitis. Comparison of gentamicin and clindamycin versus cefamandole versus cefoperazone. Am J Surg 1982;144:8-13.
120. Garbino J, Villiger P, Caviezel A, et al. A randomized prospective study of cefepime plus metronidazole with imipenem-cilastatin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Infection 2007;35:161-166
121. Merlino JI, Malangoni MA, Smith CM, et al. Prospective randomized trials affect the outcomes of intraabdominal infection. Ann Surg 2001;233:859-866
122. Meehan TP, Weingarten SR, Holmboe ES, et al. A statewide initiative to improve the care of hospitalized pneumonia patients: The Connecticut Pneumonia Pathway Project. Am J Med 2001;111:203-210
123. Welker JA, Huston M, McCue JD. Antibiotic timing and errors in diagnosing pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:351-356
124. Chow AW. Gastrointestinal and intraabdominal infections. In: Ronald AR, Low DE, eds. Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics, 1st edn. Basel, Birkhauser Verlag: 2003;137-166
125. Madan AK. Use of ciprofloxacin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with intra-abdominal infections. Clin Ther 2004;26:1564-1577
126. Matthaiou DK, Peppas G, Bliziotis IA, et al. Ciprofloxacin/metronidazole versus beta-lactam-based treatment of intraabdominal infections: A meta-analysis of comparative trials. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006;28:159-165
127. Wacha H, Warren B, Bassaris H, et al. Comparison of sequential intravenous/oral ciprofloxacin plus metronidazole with intravenous ceftriaxone plus metronidazole for treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2006;7:341-354
128. Walters DJ, Solomkin JS, Paladino JA. Cost effectiveness of ciprofloxacin plus metronidazole versus imipenem-cilastatin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Pharmacoeconomics 1999;16:551-561
129. Donahue PE, Smith DL, Yellin AE, et al. Trovafloxacin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections: Results of a double-blind, multicenter comparison with imipenem/cilastatin. Am J Surg 1998;176(Suppl 6A):53S-61S.
130. Lockhart SR, Abramson MA, Beekmann SE, et al. Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacilli causing infections in intensive care unit patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:3352-3359
131. Kern WV, Klose K, Jellen-Ritter AS, et al. Fluoroquinolone resistance of Escherichia coli at a cancer center: Epidemiologic evolution and effects of discontinuing prophylactic fluoroquinolone use in neutropenic patients with leukemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005;24:111-118
132. Kaye KS, Kanafani ZA, Dodds AE, et al. Differential effects of levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin on the risk for isolation of quinolone-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:2192-2196
133. Bailey JA, Virgo KS, DiPiro JT, et al. Aminoglycosides for intraabdominal infection: Equal to the challenge? Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2002;3:315-335
134. Wirtz M, Kleeff J, Swoboda S, et al. Moxifloxacin penetration into human gastrointestinal tissues. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;53:875-877
135. Stass H, Rink AD, Delesen H, et al. Pharmacokinetics and peritoneal penetration of moxifloxacin in peritonitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;58:693-696
136. Hoban DJ, Bouchillon SK, Johnson BM, et al. In vitro activity of tigecycline against 6792 Gram-negative and Gram-positive clinical isolates from the global Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial (TEST Program, 2004). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005;52:215-227
137. Guyot A, Layer G. MRSA - 'bug-bear' of a surgical practice: Reducing the incidence of MRSA surgical site infections. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2006;88:222-223
138. Rezende NA, Blumberg HM, Metzger BS, et al. Risk factors for methicillin-resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia at the time of hospital admission. Am J Med Sci 2002;323:117-123
139. Fierobe L, Decre D, Muller C, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a causative agent of postoperative intraabdominal infection: Relation to nasal colonization. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1231-1238
140. Patel M, Kumar RA, Stamm AM, et al. USA300 genotype community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of surgical site infections. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:3431-3433
141. Gemmell CG, Edwards DI, Fraise AP, et al. Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;57:589-608.
142. Rohrborn A, Wacha H, Schoffel U, et al. Coverage of enterococci in community acquired secondary peritonitis: Results of a randomized trial. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2000;1:95-107.
143. Harbarth S, Uckay I. Are there patients with peritonitis who require empiric therapy for enterococcus? Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004;23:73-77
144. Mean M, Marchetti O, Calandra T. Bench-to-bedside review: Candida infections in the intensive care unit. Crit Care 2008;12:204-212
145. Montravers P, Dupont H, Gauzit R, et al. Candida as a risk factor for mortality in peritonitis. Crit Care Med 2006;34:646-652
146. Dupont H, Paugam-Burtz C, Muller-Serieys C, et al. Predictive factors of mortality due to polymicrobial peritonitis with Candida isolation in peritoneal fluid in critically ill patients. Arch Surg 2002;137:1341-1346
147. Piarroux R, Grenouillet F, Balvay P, et al. Assessment of preemptive treatment to prevent severe candidiasis in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med 2004;32:2443-2449
148. Tsuruta R, Mizuno H, Kaneko T, et al. Preemptive therapy in nonneutropenic patients with Candida infection using the Japanese guidelines. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1137-1143
149. Eggimann P, Francioli P, Bille J, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis prevents intra-abdominal candidiasis in high-risk surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1066-1072
150. Schein M, Assalia A, Bachus H. Minimal antibiotic therapy after emergency abdominal surgery: A prospective study. Br J Surg 1994;81:989-991
151. Smith JA, Bell GA, Murphy J, et al. Evaluation of the use of a protocol in the antimicrobial treatment of intra-abdominal sepsis. J Hosp Infect 1985;6:60-64
152. Taylor E, Dev V, Shah D, et al. Complicated appendicitis: Is there a minimum intravenous antibiotic requirement? A prospective randomized trial. Am Surg 2000;66:887-890
153. Marshall JC. Intra-abdominal infections. Microbes Infect 2004;6:1015-1025
154. Colodner R, Rock W, Chazan B, et al. Risk factors for the development of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing bacteria in nonhospitalized patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004;23:163-167
155. Kang CI, Kim SH, Park WB, et al. Bloodstream infections due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae: Risk factors for mortality and treatment outcome, with special emphasis on antimicrobial therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:4574-4581
156. Schneider CP, Seyboth C, Vilsmaier M, et al. Prognostic factors in critically ill patients suffering from secondary peritonitis: A retrospective, observational, survival time analysis. World J Surg 2009;33:34-43.
157. Suding PN, Orrico RP, Johnson SB, et al. Concordance of interrater assessments of surgical methods to achieve source control of intraabdominal infections. Am J Surg 2008;196:70-73
158. Kumar RR, Kim JT, Haukoos JS, et al. Factors affecting the successful management of intra-abdominal abscesses with antibiotics and the need for percutaneous drainage. Dis Colon Rectum 2006;49:183-189
159. Siewert B, Tye G, Kruskal J, et al. Impact of CT-guided drainage in the treatment of diverticular abscesses: Size matters. Am J Roentgenol 2006;186:680-686
160. Cinat ME, Wilson SE, Din AM. Determinants for successful percutaneous image-guided drainage of intra-abdominal abscess. Arch Surg 2002;137:845-849
161. Cheng D, Nagata KT, Yoon HC. Randomized prospective comparison of alteplase versus saline solution for the percutaneous treatment of loculated abdominopelvic abscesses. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008;19:906-911
162. Beland MD, Gervais DA, Levis DA, et al. Complex abdominal and pelvic abscesses: Efficacy of adjunctive tissue-type plasminogen activator for drainage. Radiology 2008;247:567-573
163. Bretagnol F, Pautrat K, Mor C, et al. Emergency laparoscopic management of perforated sigmoid diverticulitis: A promising alternative to more radical procedures. J Am Coll Surg 2008;206:654-657
164. Franklin ME Jr, Portillo G, Trevino JM, et al. Long-term experience with the laparoscopic approach to perforated diverticulitis plus generalized peritonitis. World J Surg 2008;32:1507-1511
165. Taylor CJ, Layani L, Ghusn MA, et al. Perforated diverticulitis managed by laparoscopic lavage. ANZ J Surg 2006;76:962-965
166. Myers E, Hurley M, O'Sullivan GC, et al. Laparoscopic peritoneal lavage for generalized peritonitis due to perforated diverticulitis. Br J Surg 2008;95:97-101.
167. Baril NB, Ralls PW, Wren SM, et al. Does an infected peripancreatic fluid collection or abscess mandate operation? Ann Surg 2000;231:361-367
168. Olah A, Belagyi T, Bartek P, et al. Alternative treatment modalities of infected pancreatic necrosis. Hepatogastroenterology 2006;53:603-607
169. Carter R. Percutaneous management of necrotizing pancreatitis. HPB (Oxford) 2007;9:235-239
170. Loveday BP, Mittal A, Phillips A, et al. Minimally invasive management of pancreatic abscess, pseudocyst, and necrosis: A systematic review of current guidelines. World J Surg 2008;32:2383-2394
171. Lee JK, Kwak KK, Park JK, et al. The efficacy of nonsurgical treatment of infected pancreatic necrosis. Pancreas 2007;34:399-404.
172. Walker J, Criddle LM. Pathophysiology and management of abdominal compartment syndrome. Am J Crit Care 2003;12:367-371
173. Malbrain ML, De laet I, Viaene D, et al. In vitro validation of a novel
174. Pelosi P, Quintel M, Malbrain ML. Effect of intra-abdominal pressure on respiratory mechanics. Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:78-88.
175. De Laet I, Citerio G, Malbrain ML. The influence of intraabdominal hypertension on the central nervous system: Current insights and clinical recommendations, is it all in the head? Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:89-97.
176. Cheatham ML, Malbrain ML. Cardiovascular implications of abdominal compartment syndrome. Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:98-112.
177. Diebel LN, Dulchavsky SA, Brown WJ. Splanchnic ischemia and bacterial translocation in the abdominal compartment syndrome. J Trauma 1997;43:852-855
178. Diebel LN, Liberati DM, Dulchavsky SA, et al. An in vitro model to assess mucosal immune function and bacterial translocation. J Surg Res 1997;69:178-182
179. Malbrain ML, Cheatham ML, Kirkpatrick A, et al. Results from the International Conference of Experts on Intra-abdominal Hypertension and Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. I. Definitions. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:1722-1732
180. Cheatham ML, White MW, Sagraves SG, et al. Abdominal perfusion pressure: A superior parameter in the assessment of intra-abdominal hypertension. J Trauma 2000;49:621-626
181. Malbrain ML, Deeren D, De Potter TJ. Intra-abdominal hypertension in the critically ill: It is time to pay attention. Curr Opin Crit Care 2005;11:156-171
182. Malbrain ML, Chiumello D, Pelosi P, et al. Prevalence of intra-abdominal hypertension in critically ill patients: A multicentre epidemiological study. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:822-829
183. Malbrain ML, Chiumello D, Pelosi P, et al. Incidence and prognosis of intraabdominal hypertension in a mixed population of critically ill patients: A multiple-center epidemiological study. Crit Care Med 2005;33:315-322
184. Bodnar Z, Szentkereszty Z, Sipka S, et al. The epidemiology of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome in critically ill general surgical patients. Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;62:S250.
185. De Waele JJ, Hoste E, Blot SI, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Crit Care 2005;9:R452-R457.
186. Rosas JM, Soto SN, Aracil JS, et al. Intra-abdominal pressure as a marker of severity in acute pancreatitis. Surgery 2007;141:173-178
187. Pupelis G, Austrums E, Snippe K, et al. Clinical significance of increased intraabdominal pressure in severe acute pancreatitis. Acta Chir Belg 2002;102:71-74
188. Leppaniemi A, Kemppainen E. Recent advances in the surgical management of necrotizing pancreatitis. Curr Opin Crit Care 2005;11:349-352
189. Plantefeve G, Hellmann R, Pajot O, et al. Abdominal compartment syndrome and intraabdominal sepsis: Two of the same kind? Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:162-167
190. Busani S, Soccorsi MC, Poma C, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension in nonelective surgery: A preliminary report. Transplant Proc 2006;38:836-837
191. De Waele JJ, Hesse UJ. Life saving abdominal decompression in a patient with severe acute pancreatitis. Acta Chir Belg 2005;105:96-98
192. Gecelter G, Fahoum B, Gardezi S, et al. Abdominal compartment syndrome in severe acute pancreatitis: An indication for a decompressing laparotomy? Dig Surg 2002;19:402-404
193. Wong K, Summerhays CF. Abdominal compartment syndrome: A new indication for operative intervention in severe acute pancreatitis. Int J Clin Pract 2005;59:1479-1481
194. Oda S, Hirasawa H, Shiga H, et al. Management of intra-abdominal hypertension in patients with severe acute pancreatitis with continuous hemodiafiltration using a polymethyl methacrylate membrane hemofilter. Ther Apher Dial 2005;9:355-361
195. Leppaniemi AK, Hienonen PA, Siren JE, et al. Treatment of abdominal compartment syndrome with subcutaneous anterior abdominal fasciotomy in severe acute pancreatitis. World J Surg 2006;30:1922-1924
196. Malbrain ML, De laet I, Cheatham M. Consensus conference definitions and recommendations on intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and the abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) - the long road to the final publications, how did we get there? Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:44-59.
197. Cheatham ML, Malbrain ML, Kirkpatrick A, et al. Results from the International Conference of Experts on Intra-abdominal Hypertension and Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. II. Recommendations. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:951-962
198. Balogh Z, De Waele JJ, Malbrain ML. Continuous intra-abdominal pressure monitoring. Acta Clin Belg Suppl 2007;1:26-32.
199. Hedrick TL, Anastacio MM, Sawyer RG. Prevention of surgical site infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006;4:223-233
200. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, et al. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:250-278
201. Haley RW, Culver DH, White JW, et al. The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121:182-205.
202. Culver DH, Horan TC, Gaynes RP, et al. Surgical wound infection rates by wound class, operative procedure, and patient risk index. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Am J Med 1991;91:152S-7S.
203. Haley RW, Culver DH, Morgan WM, et al. Identifying patients at high risk of surgical wound infection. A simple multivariate index of patient susceptibility and wound contamination. Am J Epidemiol 1985;121:206-215
204. Zerr KJ, Furnary AP, Grunkemeier GL, et al. Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;63:356-361
205. Jones JK, Triplett RG. The relationship of cigarette smoking to impaired intraoral wound healing: A review of evidence and implications for patient care. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1992;50:237-239
206. American Institute of Architects. Guidelines for design and construction of hospital and health care facilities. 1996. Washington, DC, American Institute of Architects Press.
207. Nichols RL. The operating room. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital Infections. Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1992;461-473
208. Larson E. Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:253-266
209. The Medical Letter. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgery: treatment guidelines. Med Lett 2004;2:27-32.
210. Classen DC, Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, et al. The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical-wound infection. N Engl J Med 1992;326:281-286
211. Simor AE, Ofner-Agostini M, Bryce E, et al. The evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Canadian hospitals: 5 years of national surveillance. CMAJ 2001;165:21-26
212. Ruef C. Epidemiology and clinical impact of glycopeptide resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Infection 2004;32:315-327
213. Muto CA, Jernigan JA, Ostrowsky BE, et al. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003;24:362-386
214. Pittet D. Improving adherence to hand hygiene practice: A multidisciplinary approach. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:234-240
215. Zhanel GG, Lam A, Schweizer F, et al. Ceftobiprole: A review of a broad-spectrum and anti-MRSA cephalosporin. Am J Clin Dermatol 2008;9:245-254
216. Zhanel GG, Wiebe R, Dilay L, et al. Comparative review of the carbapenems. Drugs 2007;67:1027-1052
217. Walker AP, Nichols RL, Wilson RF, et al. Efficacy of a betalactamase inhibitor combination for serious intraabdominal infections. Ann Surg 1993;217:115-121
218. Study Group of Intra-abdominal Infections. A randomized controled trial of ampicillin plus sulbactam versus gentamicin and clindamycin in the treatment of intraabdominal infections: A preliminary report. Rev Infect Dis 1986;8(Suppl 5):s583-s588.
219. Yellin AE, Heseltine PN, Berne TV, et al. The role of Pseudomonas species in patients treated with ampicillin and Sulbactam for gangrenous and perforated appendicitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1985;161:303-307
220. Allo MD, Bennion RS, Kathir K, et al. Ticarcillin/clavulanate versus imipenem/cilistatin for the treatment of infections associated with gangrenous and perforated appendicitis. Am Surg 1999;65:99-104.
221. Najem AZ, Kaminski ZC, Spillert CR, et al. Comparative study of parenteral piperacillin and cefoxitin in the treatment of surgical infections of the abdomen. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1983;157:423-425
222. Namias N, Solomkin JS, Jensen EH, et al. Randomized, multicenter, double-blind study of efficacy, safety, and tolerability of intravenous ertapenem versus piperacillin/tazobactam in treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections in hospitalized adults. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2007;8:15-28.
223. Paakkonen M, Alhava EM, Huttunen R, et al. Piperacillin compared with cefuroxime plus metronidazole in diffuse peritonitis. Eur J Surg 1991;157:535-537
224. Shyr YM, Lui WY, Su CH, et al. Piperacillin/tazobactam in comparison with clindamycin plus gentamicin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (Taipei) 1995;56:102-108
225. Dupont H, Carbon C, Carlet J. Monotherapy with a broad-spectrum beta-lactam is as effective as its combination with an aminoglycoside in treatment of severe generalized peritonitis: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. The Severe Generalized Peritonitis Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:2028-2033
226. Investigators of the Piperacillin/Tazobactam Intra-abdominal Infection Study Group. Results of the North American trial of piperacillin/tazobactam compared with clindamycin and gentamicin in the treatment of severe intra-abdominal infections. Eur J Surg Suppl 1994;573:61-66
227. Jaccard C, Troillet N, Harbarth S, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of imipenem-cilastatin and piperacillin-tazobactam in nosocomial pneumonia or peritonitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:2966-2972
228. Solomkin JS, Yellin AE, Rotstein OD, et al. Ertapenem versus piperacillin/tazobactam in the treatment of complicated intraabdominal infections: Results of a double-blind, randomized comparative phase III trial. Ann Surg 2003;237:235-245
229. Eckhauser FE, Knol JA, Raper SE, et al. Efficacy of two comparative antibiotic regimens in the treatment of serious intra-abdominal infections: Results of a multicenter study. Clin Ther 1992;14:97-109.
230. Gonzenbach HR, Simmen HP, Amgwerd R. Imipenem (N-F-thienamycin) versus netilmicin plus clindamycin. A controlled and randomized comparison in intra-abdominal infections. Ann Surg 1987;205:271-275
231. Angeras MH, Darle N, Hamnstrom K, et al. A comparison of imipenem/cilastatin with the combination of cefuroxime and metronidazole in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Scand J Infect Dis 1996;28:513-518
232. de Groot HG, Hustinx PA, Lampe AS, et al. Comparison of imipenem/cilastatin with the combination of aztreonam and clindamycin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;32:491-500.
233. Brismar B, Malmborg AS, Tunevall G, et al. Meropenem versus imipenem/cilastatin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995;35:139-148
234. Basoli A, Meli EZ, Mazzocchi P, et al. Imipenem/cilastatin (1.5 g daily) versus meropenem (3.0 g daily) in patients with intraabdominal infections: Results of a prospective, randomized, multicentre trial. Scand J Infect Dis 1997;29:503-508
235. Kanellakopoulou K, Giamarellou H, Papadothomakos P, et al. Meropenem versus imipenem/cilastatin in the treatment of intraabdominal infections requiring surgery. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;12:449-453
236. Zanetti G, Harbarth SJ, Trampuz A, et al. Meropenem (1.5 g/day) is as effective as imipenem/cilastatin (2 g/day) for the treatment of moderately severe intra-abdominal infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999;11:107-113
237. Berne TV, Yellin AE, Appleman MD, et al. Meropenem versus tobramycin with clindamycin in the antibiotic management of patients with advanced appendicitis. J Am Coll Surg 1996;182:403-407
238. Yellin AE, Hassett JM, Fernandez A, et al. Ertapenem monotherapy versus combination therapy with ceftriaxone plus metronidazole for treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections in adults. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002;20:165-173
239. Hopkins JA, Wilson SE, Bobey DG. Adjunctive antimicrobial therapy for complicated appendicitis: Bacterial overkill by combination therapy. World J Surg 1994;18:933-938
240. Malangoni MA, Condon RE, Spiegel CA. Treatment of intra-abdominal infections is appropriate with single-agent or combination antibiotic therapy. Surgery 1985;98:648-655
241. Busuttil RW, McGrattan MA, Freischlag J. A comparative study of cefamandole versus gentamicin plus clindamycin in the treatment of documented or suspected bacterial peritonitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1984;158:1-8.
242. Tornqvist A, Forsgren A, Leandoer L, et al. Antibiotic treatment during surgery for diffuse peritonitis: A prospective randomized study comparing the effects of cefuroxime and of a cefuroxime and metronidazole combination. Br J Surg 1985;72:261-264
243. Greenberg RN, Cayavec P, Danko LS, et al. Comparison of cefoperazone plus sulbactam with clindamycin plus gentamicin as treatment for intra-abdominal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;34:391-401.
244. Berne TV, Yellin AE, Appleman MD, et al. Surgically treated gangrenous or perforated appendicitis. A comparison of aztreonam and clindamycin versus gentamicin and clindamycin. Ann Surg 1987;205:133-137
245. Berne TV, Yellin AE, Appleman MD, et al. A clinical comparison of cefepime and metronidazole versus gentamicin and clindamycin in the antibiotic management of surgically treated advanced appendicitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993;177(Suppl):18-22.
246. Bubrick MP, Heim-Duthoy KL, Yellin AE, et al. Ceftazidime/clindamycin versus tobramycin/clindamycin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Am Surg 1990;56:613-617
247. Starakis I, Karravias D, Asimakopoulos C, et al. Results of a prospective, randomized, double blind comparison of the efficacy and the safety of sequential ciprofloxacin (intravenous/oral)+metronidazole (intravenous/oral) with ceftriaxone (intravenous)+metronidazole (intravenous/oral) for the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003;21:49-57.
248. Zhanel GG, Karlowsky JA, Rubinstein E, et al. Tigecycline: A novel glycylcycline antibiotic. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006;4:9-25.
249. Zhanel GG, Johanson C, Embil JM, et al. Ertapenem: Review of a new carbapenem. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2005;3:23-39.
250. Zhanel GG, Laing NM, Nichol KA, et al. Antibiotic activity against urinary tract infection (UTI) isolates of vancomycinresistant enterococci (VRE): Results from the 2002 North American Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci Susceptibility Study (NAVRESS). J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;52:382-388
251. Zhanel GG, Ennis K, Vercaigne L, et al. A critical review of the fluoroquinolones: Focus on respiratory infections. Drugs 2002;62:13-59.
252. Zhanel GG, Shroeder C, Vercaigne L, et al. A critical review of oxazolidinones: An alternative or replacement for glycopeptides and streptogramins? Can J Infect Dis 2001;12:379-390
253. Zhanel GG, Simor A, Vercaigne L, et al. Imipenem/meropenem: Review of in-vitro activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical trials and adverse effects. Can J Infect Dis 1998;44:391-396
254. Gin A, Dilay L, Karlowsky JA, et al. Piperacillin-tazobactam: A beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combination. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2007;5:365-383
255. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility tesing. 15th Informational Supplement M100-S15. 2005. Wayne, PA, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.
256. Goldstein EJ, Citron DM, Warren YA, et al. In vitro activity of moxifloxacin against 923 anaerobes isolated from human intra-abdominal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:148-155
257. Aldridge KE, O'Brien M. In vitro susceptibilities of the Bacteroides fragilis group species: Change in isolation rates significantly affects overall susceptibility data. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:4349-4352
258. Roberts SA, Shore KP, Paviour SD, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria in New Zealand: 1999-2003. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;57:992-998