Atmospheric nitrogen budget in Sahelian dry savannas

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 10, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 2691-2708

  Delon, C ^a   Galy Lacaux, C ^a   Boone, A ^b   Liousse, C ^a   Serca D ^a   Adon, M ^a,c   Diop, B ^d   Akpo, A ^e   Lavenu, F ^f   Mougin, E ^f   Timouk, F ^f  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE TOULOUSE   (France)

^b CENTRE NATIONAL DE RECHERCHES MÉTÉOROLOGIQUES   (France)

^c Laboratoire de Physique de l'Atmosphere   (France)

^d Laboratoire de Microbiologie des Sols   (France)

^e UNIVERSITY OF ABOMEY CALAVI   (Benin)

^f CESBIO   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; BIOGENIC EMISSION; BIOMASS BURNING; DRY DEPOSITION; FIRE; NITROGEN COMPOUND; SAVANNA; VOLATILIZATION; WET DEPOSITION;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 77949871493     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-10-2691-2010     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Adon, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Yoboué, V., Delon, C., Lacaux, J. P., Castera, P., Gardrat, E., Pienaar, J., Al Ourabi, H., Laouali, D., Diop, B., Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., Akpo, A., Tathy, J., Lavenu, F., and Mougin, E.: Long-term measurements of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, nitric acid and ozone in Africa using passive samplers, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10, 4407-4461, 2010, http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/10/4407/2010/.
2. Ali, A., Lebel, T., and Amani, A.: Invariance in the spatial structure of Sahelian rain fields at climatological scales, J. Hydrometeor., 4, 996-1011, 2003.
3. Assamoi E. M. and Liousse, C.: Focus on the impact of two wheel vehicles on African combustion aerosols emissions, Atmos. Environ., under revision, 2010.
4. Andreae, M. O. and Merlet, P.: Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 15, 955-966, 2001.
5. Aubréville, A.: Climats, forêts et désertification de l'Afrique trop-icale, Soc. Ed. Géogr. Marit. et col., Paris (in french), 351 pp., 1949.
6. Austin, A. T., Yahdjian, L., Stark, J. M., Belnap, J., Porporato, A., Norton, U., Ravetta, D. A., and Schaeffer, S. M.: Water pulses and biogeochemical cycles in arid and semi arid ecosystems, Oe-cologia, 141, 221-235, 2004.
7. Baer, M. and Nester, K.: Parametrization of trace gas dry deposition velocities for a regional mesoscale diffusion model, Ann. Geophys., 10, 912-923, 1992, http://www.ann-geophys.net/10/912/1992/.
8. Barger, N. N., Belnap, J., Ojima, D. S., and Mosier, A.: NO gas loss from biologically crusted soils in Canyonlands National Park, Utah, Biogeochem., 75, 373-391, 2005.
9. Boone A., De Rosnay, P., Balsamo, G., Beljaars, A., Chopin, F., Decharme, B., Delire, C., Ducharne, A., Gascoin, S., Grippa, M., Guichard, F., Gusev, Y., Harris, P., Jarlan, L., Kergoat, L., Mougin, E., Nasonova, O., Norgaard, A., Orgeval, T., Ottl, C., Poccard-Leclerq, I., Polcher, J., Sandholt, I., Saux-Picart, S., Taylor, C., and Xue, Y.: The AMMA Land Surface Model Inter-comparison Project (ALMIP), Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1865-1880, doi:10.1175/2009BAMS2786.1, 2009.
10. Bouwman, A. F., Lee, D. S., Asman, W. A. H., Dentener, F. J., Van Der Hoek, K. W., and Olivier, J. G. J.: A Global High-Resolution Emission Inventory for Ammonia, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 11(4), 561-587, 1997.
11. Bouwman, A. F. and Van Der Hoek, K. W.: Scenarios of animal waste production and fertilizer use and associated ammonia emission for the developping countries, Atmos. Env., 31(24), 4095-4102, 1997.
12. 3 volatilization loss from synthetic fertilizers and animal manure applied to arable lands and grasslands, Glob. Bio-geochem. Cy., 16(2), 1024, doi:10.1029/2000GB001389, 2002a.
13. 2O and NO emissions from fertilized fields, Glob. Biogeochem. Cy., 16(4), 1080, doi:10.1029/2001GB001812, 2002b.
14. 4 in a tropical rain forest ecosystem, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 18, GB3012, doi:10.1029/2004GB002243, 2004.
15. Carmichael G. R., Ferm, M., Thongboonchoo, N., Woo, J.-H., Chan, L. Y., Murano, K., Viet, P. H., Mossberg, C., Bala, R., Boonjawat, J., and Lacaux, J. P.: Measurements of sulfur dioxide, ozone and ammonia concentrations in Asia, Africa, and South America using passive samplers, Atmos. Environ., 37, 1293-1308, 2003.
16. 2 system, Bound. Lay. Meteorol., 61, 375-387, 1992.
17. Davidson, E. A. and Kingerlee, W.: A global inventory of nitric oxide emissions from soils, Nutr. Cy. Agroecosyst., 48, 37-50, 1997.
18. Delon, C., Serça, D., Boissard, C., Dupont, R., Dutot, A., Laville, de Rosnay, P., and Delmas, R.: Soil NO emissions modelling using artificial neural network, Tellus B, 59B, 502-513, 2007.
19. x and ozone over West Africa during AMMA (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis): modelling study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 2351-2363, 2008, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/8/2351/2008/.
20. Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque, J. F., Bey, I., Eickhout, B., Fiore, A. M., Hauglustaine, D., Horowitz, L. W., Krol, M., Kul-shrestha, U. C., Lawrence, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Rast, S., Shin-dell, D., Stevenson, D., Van Noije, T., Atherton, C., Bell, N., Bergman, D., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, B., Doherty, R., Ellingsen, K., Galloway, J., Gauss, M., Montanaro, V., Mller, J. F., Pitari, G., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Solmon, F., Stra-han, S., Schultz, M., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Wild, O.: Nitrogen and sulfur deposition on regional and global scales: A mul-timodel evaluation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20(4), GB4003, doi:10.1029/2005GB002672, 2006.
21. De Rosnay P., Drusch, M., Boone, A., Balsamo, G., Decharme, B., Harris, P., Kerr, Y., Pellarin, T., Polcher, J., and Wigneron, J.-P.: AMMA Land Surface Model Intercompari-son Experiment coupled to the Community Microwave Emission Model: ALMIP-MEM, J. of Geophys. Res., 114, D05108, doi:10.1029/2008JD010724, 2009.
22. Diallo and Gjessing, Natural resources management: Morpho-pedology in Gourma region. SSE Research program Mali-Norway (in French), CNRST-IER-Oslo University Norway 1-19, 1999.
23. Duyzer J. and Fowler, D.: Modelling land atmosphere exchange of gaseous oxides of nitrogen in Europe, Tellus, 46B, 353-372, 1994.
24. Erisman, J., and Baldocchi, D.: Modelling dry deposition of so2, Tellus, Ser. B, 46, 159-171, 1994.
25. Ferm, M., Lindskorg, A., Svanberg, P. A., and Boström, C. A.: New measurement technique for air pollutants (in Swedish), Kem. Tidskr. 1, 30-32, 1994.
26. 3 at rural sites in Asia, J. Atmos. Chem., 27, 17-29, 1997.
27. Galbally I., Kirstine, W. V., Meyer, C. P., and Wang, Y. P.: Soil-atmosphere trace gas exchange in semiarid and arid zones, J. Environ. Qual. 37, 599-607, 2008.
28. Galloway, J. N. and Cowling, E. B.: Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 years of change, Ambio, 31, 64-71, 2002.
29. Galloway, J. N., Dentener, F. J., Capone, D. G., Boyer, E. W., Howarth, R. W., Seitzinger, S. P., Asner, G. P., Cleveland, C. C., Green, P. A., Holland, E. A., Karl, D. M., Michaels, A. F., Porter, J. H., Townsend, A. R., and Sarty, C. J.: Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future, Biogeochemistry, 70, 153-226, 2004.
30. Galloway, J. N., Townsend, A. R., Erisman, J. W., Bekunda, M., Cai, Z., Freney, J. R., Martinelli, L. A., Seitzinger, S. P., and Sutton, M. A.: Transformation of the Nitrogen Cycle: Recent Trends, Questions, and Potential Solutions, Science, 320, 889-892, 2008.
31. Galy-Lacaux C. and Modi, A. I.: Precipitation chemistry in the Sahelian savanna in Niger, Africa, J. Atmos. Chem., 30, 319-343, 1998.
32. Galy-Lacaux C., Carmichael, G. R., Song, C. H., Lacaux, J. P., Al Ourabi, H., and Modi, A. I.: Heterogeneous processes involving nitrogenous compounds and Saharan dust inferred from measurements and model calculations, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D12), 12559-12578, 2001.
33. Galy-Lacaux C., Al Ourabi, H., Galloway, J., Lacaux, J. P., Mphepya, J., Pienaar, K., Pont, V., Sigha, L., and Yobou, V.: Dry and Wet Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition in Africa, IGACtiv-ities Newsletter of the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project, DEBITS Special Issue 27, 2003.
34. Galy-Lacaux C., Laouali, D., Descroix, L., Gobron, N., and Li-ousse, C.: Long term precipitation chemistry and wet deposition in a remote dry savanna site in Africa (Niger), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 1579-1595, 2009, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/1579/2009/.
35. Geiger B., Meurey, C., Lajas, D., Franchistǵuy, L., Carrer, D., and Roujean, J.-L.: Near real-time provision of downwelling shortwave radiation estimates derived from satellite observations, Meteor. Appl., 15, 411-420, 2008.
36. Hansen, M. C., Defries, R. S., Townshend, J. R. G., and Sohlberg, R.: Global land cover classification at 1 km spatial resolution using a classification tree approach. Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1331-1364, 2000.
37. Hanson P.J. and S.E. Lindberg, Dry deposition of reactive nitrogen compounds: a review of leaf, canopy and non-foliar measurements, Atmos. Environ., 25A, 8, 1615-1634, 1991.
38. Hill, K. A., Shepson, P. B., Galbavy, E. S., and Anastasio, C.: Measurement of wet deposition of inorganic and organic nitrogen in a forest environment, J. of Geophys. Res., 110, G02010, doi:10.1029/2005JG000030, 2005.
39. Huffman G. J., Adler, R. F., Bolvin, D. T., Gu, G., Nelkin, E. J., Bowman, K. P., Hong, Y., Stocker, E. F., and Wolff, D. B.: The TRMM Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis: Quasi-Global, Multi-Year, Combined-Sensor Precipitation Estimates at Fine Scale, J. Hydrometeor., 8, 38-55, 2007.
40. Jaeglé, L., Martin, R. V., Chance, K., Steinberger, L., Kurosu, T. P., Jacob, D. J., Modi, A. I., Yoboué, V., Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., and Galy-Lacaux, C.: Satellite mapping of rain-induced nitric oxide emissions from soils, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21310, doi:10.1029/2003JD004406, 2004.
41. Jain, A. K.: Global estimation of CO emissions using three sets of satellite data for burned area, Atmos. Environ., 41, 6931-6940, 2007.
42. Jin, L. Shao, M., Zeng, L., Zhao, D., and Tang, D.: Estimation of dry deposition fluxes of major inorganic species by canopy throughfall approach, Chinese Sci. Bull., 51(15), 1818-1823, 2006.
43. Johansson D., H. Rodhe, and E. Sanhueza, Emission of NO in a tropical savanna and a cloud forest during the dry season, J. Geo-phys. Res., 93(D6), 7180-7192, 1988.
44. Junker C. and Liousse, C.: A Global Emission Inventory of Carbonaceous Aerosol including Fossil Fuel and Biofuel sources for the Period 1860-1997, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1-13, 2008, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/8/1/2008/.
45. Kramm, G., Dlugi, R., Dollard, G. J., Foken, T.,Molders, N., Muller, H., Seiler, W., and Sievering, H.: On the dry deposition of ozone and reactive nitrogen species, Atmos. Environ., 29(21), 3209-3231, 1995.
46. Kristensen L., Lenshow, D. H., Gurarie, D., and Jensen, N. O.: A simple model for vertical transport of reactive species in the con-vective atmospheric boundary layer, Bound. Lay. Meteorol., 134, 195-221, 2010.
47. Le Roux, X., Abbadie, L., Lensi, R., and Serça, D.: Emission of nitrogen monoxide from African tropical ecosystems: Control of emission by soil characteristics in humid and dry savannas of West Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 23133-23142, 1995.
48. Liousse C., Guillaume, B., Gregoire, J. M., Mallet, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Poirson, A., Solmon, F., Pont, V., Mariscal, A., Dun-gal, L., Rosset, R., Yobou, V., Bedou, X., Sera, D., Konar, A., Granier, C., and Mieville, A.: African Aerosols Modelling during the EOP-AMMA campaign with updated biomass burning emission inventories, submitted to Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss, 2010.
49. Loveland, T. R., Reed, B. C., Brown, J. F., Ohlen, D. O., Zhu, Z., Yang, L., and Merchant, J.: Global Land Cover Characteristics Database (GLCCD) Version 2.0. Available online at http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/glcc/globdoc2 0.html, 2000.
50. Ludwig J., L.T. Marufu, B. Huber, M.O. Andreae and G. Helas, Domestic combustion of biomass fuels in developing countries: a major source of atmospheric pollutants, J. of Atmos. Chem., 44, 23-37, 2003.
51. Mari, C. H., Cailley, G., Corre, L., Saunois, M., Attie, J. L., Thouret, V., and Stohl, A.: Tracing biomass burning plumes from the Southern Hemisphere during the AMMA 2006 wet season experiment, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 7, 17339-17366, 2008, http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/7/17339/2008/.
52. Martins, J. J., Dhammapala, R. S., Lachmann, G., Galy-Lacaux, C., and Pienaar, J. J.: Long-term measurements of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, nitric acid and ozone in southern Africa using passive samplers, South Afr. J. Sci., 103, 336-342, 2007.
53. Masson, V., Champeaux, J.-L., Chauvin, F., Meriguet, C. and La-caze, R.: A global database of land surface parameters at 1km resolution in meteorological and climate models. J. Climate, 16(9), 1261-1282, 2003.
54. 2, Atmos. Env., 27A, 4, 493-501, 1993.
55. Mayaux, P., Bartholom, E., Massart, M., Van Cutsem, C., Cabral, A., Nonguierma, A., Diallo, O., Pretorius, C., Thompson, M., Cherlet, M., Pekel, J.-F., Defourny, P., Vasconcelos, M., Di Gre-gorio, A., Fritz, S., De Grandi, G., Elvidge, C., Vogt, P., and Belward, A.: Global Land Cover 2000 Project, European Commission Joint Research Centre, http://www.gvm.jrc.it/glc2000, 2003.
56. Meixner, F. X. and Yang, W. X.: Biogenic emissions of nitric oxide and ditrous oxide from arid and semi-arid land, Dryland Ecohy-drology, edited by: DÓ doroco, P. and Porporato, A., by Kluwer Academic Publishers B.V., Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 23-46, 2004.
57. Michel C., Liousse, C., Grégoire, J.-M., Tansey, K., Carmichael, G. R., and Woo, J.-H.: Biomass burning emissions inventory from burnt area data given by SPOT-Vegetation satellite for TRACE-P and ACE-Asia case studies, J. of Geophys. Res., 110, D09304, doi:10.1029/2004JD005461, 2005.
58. Mieville, A., Granier, C., Liousse, C., Guillaume, B., Mouillot, F., Lamarque, J. F., Grégoire, J. M., and Pétron, G.: Emissions of gases and particles from biomass burning during the 20th century using satellite data and an historical reconstruction, Atmos. Environ., in press, 2010.
59. 2O budget: nitrous oxide emissions through the agricultural nitrogen cycle, Nutr. Cy. Agroecosys., 52, 225-248, 1998.
60. Mougin, E., Hiernaux, P., Kergoat, L., Grippa, M., De Rosnay, P., Timouk, F., Le Dantec, V., Demarez, V., Arjounin, M., Lavenu, F., Soumaguel, N., Ceschia, E., Mougenot, B., Baup, F., Frap-part, F., Frison, P. L., Gardelle, J., Gruhier, C., Jarlan, L., Man-giarotti, S., Sanou, B., Tracol, Y., Guichard, F., Trichon, V., Di-arra, L., Soumaré, A., Koité, M., Dembélé, F., Lloyd, C., Hanan, N. P., Damesin, C., Delon, C., Serça, D., Galy-Lacaux, C., Seghiéri, J., Becerra, S., Dia, H., Gangneron, F., and Mazzega, P.: The AMMA-CATCH Gourma observatory site in Mali: Relating climatic variations to changes in vegetation, surface hydrology, fluxes and natural resources, J. Hydrology, AMMA-CATCH Special issue, 375, 14-33, 2009.
61. Munger J. W., Fan, S.-M., Bakwin, P. S., Goulden, M. L., Goldstein, A. H. Colman, A. S., and Wofsy, S. C.: Regional budgets for nitrogen oxides from continental sources: Variations of rates for oxidation and deposition with season and distance from source regions, J. Geophys. Res., 103(D7), 8355-8368, 1998.
62. Noilhan, J. and Mahfouf, J.-F.: The ISBA land surface parameterization scheme. Glob. Planet. Change, 13, 145-159, 1996.
63. Otter, L. B., Yang, W. X., Scholes, M. C. and Meixner, F. X.: Nitric oxode emissions from a southern african savanna, J. of Geophys. Res, 104(D15), 18471-18485, 1999.
64. Pineda Rojas A. L. and Venegas, L. E.: Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen emitted in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires to coastal waters of de la Plata River, Atmos. Environ., 43, 1339-1348, 2009.
65. Potter, C. S., Matson, P. A., Vitousek, P. M., and Davidson, E. A.: Process modelling of controls on nitrogen trace gas emissions from soils worldwide, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1361-1377, 1996.
66. Sauvage, B., Thouret, V., Cammas, J.-P., Brioude, J., Ned-elec, P., and Mari, C.: Meridional ozone gradients in the African upper troposphere, Geophys. Res. Lett. 34(3), 03817, doi:10.1029/2006GL028542, 2007.
67. Schlecht, E., Fernandez-Rivera, S., and Hiernaux, P.: Timing, size and N-concentration of faecal and urinary excretions in cattle, sheep and goats-can they be used for better manuring of cropland?, edited by: Renard, G., Neef, A., Becker, K., and von Oppen, M., Soil fertility Management in West AfricanLand Use Systems. Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim, Germany, 361-368, 1998.
68. Schlecht E. and Hiernaux, P.: Beyond adding up inputs and outputs: process assessment and upscaling in modelling nutrient flows, Nutr. Cy. Agroecosys., 70, 303-319, 2004.
69. Schlecht E., Hiernaux, P., Achard, F., and Turner, M. D.: Livestock related nutrient budgets within village territories in western Niger, Nutr. Cy. Agroecosys., 68, 199-211, 2004.
70. Seinfeld J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: from air pollution to climate change, A Wiley-Interscience publication, USA, 1326 pp., 1998.
71. Serça, D., Delmas, R., Le Roux, X., Parsons, D. A. B., Scholes, M. C., Abbadie, L., and co-authors: Comparison of nitrogen monoxide emissions from several African tropical ecosystems and influence of season and fire, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 12, 637-651, 1998.
72. Shen J. L., Tang, A. H., Liu, X. J., Fangmeier, A., Goulding, K. T. W., and Zhang, F. S.: High concentrations and dry deposition of reactive nitrogen species at two sites in the North China Plain, Environ. Pollut. 157, 3106-3113, 2009.
73. Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., Galy-Lacaux, C., Pont, V., Richard, S., Sighoumnou, D., and Lacaux, J.-P.: Rainwater chemistry and wet deposition over the equatorial forested ecosystem of Zoetele (Cameroon), J. Atmos. Chem., 46, 173-198, 2003.
74. Stroppiana, D., Brivio, P. A., Grégoire, J.-M., Liousse, C., Guil-laume, B., Granier, C., Mieville, A., and Chin, M.: Comparison of global monthly CO emission maps derived from remotely sensed burned area datasets, Atmos. Chem. Phys., submitted, 2010.
75. Sutton, M. A., Burkhardt, J. K., Guerin, D., Nemitz, E., and Fowler, D.: Development of resistance models to describe measurements of bi-directional ammonia surface-atmosphere exchange, Atmos. Environ., 32(3), 473-480, 1998.
76. Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Erisman, J. W., Beier, C., Butterbach Bahl, K., Cellier, P., de Vries, W., Cotrufo, F., Skiba, U., Di Marco, C., Jones, S., Laville, P., Soussana, J. F., Loubet, B., Twigg, M., Famulari, D., Whitehead, J., Gallagher, M. W., Nef-tel, A., Flechard, C. R., Herrmann, B., Calanca, P. L., Schjo-erring, J. K., Daemmgen, U., Horvath, L., Tang, Y. S., Em-mett, B. A., Tietema, A., Peuelas, J., Kesik, M., Brueggemann, N., Pilegaard, K., Vesala, T., Campbell, C. L., Olesen, J. E., Dragosits, U., Theobald, M. R., Levy, P., Mobbs, D. C., Milne, R., Viovy, N., Vuichard, N., Smith, J. U., Smith, P., Bergam-aschi, P., Fowler, D., and Reis, S.: Challenges in quantifying biosphere-atmosphere exchange of nitrogen species, Env. Poll., 150, 125-139, 2007.
77. Tansey, K., Grégoire, J. M., Defourny, P., Leigh, R., Pekel, J. F., Van Bogaert, E., and Bartholomé, E.: A new, global, multi-annual (2000-2007) burnt area product at 1km resolution, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L01401, doi:10.1029/2007GL031567, 2008.
78. Tost H., Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Pozzer, A., Sander, R., and Lelieveld, J.: Global cloud and precipitation chemistry and wet deposition: tropospheric model simulations with ECHAM5/MESSy1, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2733-2757, 2007, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/2733/2007/.
79. Trebs, L., Lara, L. L., Zeri, L. M. M., Gatti, L. V., Artaxo, P., Dlugi, R., Slanina, J., Andreae, M. O., and Meixner, F. X.: Dry and wet deposition of inorganic nitrogen compounds to a tropical pasture site (Rondnia, Brazil), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 447-469, 2006, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/447/2006/ .
80. Vlek, P. L. G., Fillery, I. R. P., and Burford, J. R.:Accession, transformation, and loss of nitrogen in soils of the arid region, Plant Soil, 58, 133-175, 1981.
81. Wesely, M. L. and Hicks, B. B.: Some factors that affect the deposition rates of sulfur dioxide and similar gases on vegetation, J. Poll. Control Assoc., 27, 1110-1117, 1977.
82. Wesely, M. L.: Parameterization of surface resistances to gaseous dry deposition in regional-scale numerical models, Atmos. Environ., 23, 1293-1304, 1989.
83. Whelpdale, D. M., Summers, P. W., and Sanhueza, E.: A global overview of atmospheric acid deposition fluxes, Environ. Monitor. Assess., 48, 217-247, 1997.
84. Whitall D., Hendrickson, B., and Paerl, H.: Importance of atmospherically deposited nitrogen to the annual nitrogen budget of the Neuse River estuary, North Carolina, Environ. Int., 29(2-3), 393-399, 2003.
85. White, F.: La végétation de l'Afrique. Mémoire accompagnant la carte de végétation de l'Afrique UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO.-ORSTOM et UNESCO (in french), Paris, collection Recherches sur les ressources naturelles, 20, 384 pp., 1986.
86. Williams, E. J., Guenther, A., and Fehsenfeld, F. C.: An inventory of nitric oxide emissions from soils in the United States, J. Geo-phys. Res., 97, 7511-7519, 1992.
87. Yan, X., Ohara, T., and Akimoto, H.: Statistical modelling of global soil NOx emissions, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 19, GB3019, doi:10.1029/2004GB002276, 2005.
88. x emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11447-11464, 1995.
89. Yoboué, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Lacaux, J. P., and Sibué, S.: Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Wet Savanna Ecosystem of Lamto (Côte d'Ivoire), J. Atmos. Chem., 52, 117-141, 2005.
90. Zhang L., Gong, S., Padro, J., and Barrie, L.: A size-segregated particle dry deposition scheme for an atmospheric aerosol module, Atmos. Environ., 35, 549-560, 2001.
91. 2 and PAN to total atmospheric deposition of oxidized nitrogen across Eastern Canada, Atmos. Environ., 39, 7030-7043, 2005.
92. Zhang L., J.R. Brook and R. Vet, A revised parameterization for gaseous dry deposition in air-quality models, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 3, 2067-2082, 2003.
93. Zhang, L., Vet, R., OBrien, J. M., Mihele, C., Liang, Z., and Wiebe, A.: Dry deposition of individual nitrogen species at eight Canadian rural sites, J.Geophys. Res., vol 114, D02301, doi:10.1029/2008JD010640, 2009.