Environmental risk factors for temporal lobe epilepsy - Is prenatal exposure to the marine algal neurotoxin domoic acid a potentially preventable cause?

Medical Hypotheses

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 466-481

  Stewart, Ian ^a,b  

^a QUEENSLAND HEALTH   (Australia)

^b GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2 AMINO 3 METHYLAMINOPROPIONIC ACID; BACTERIAL TOXIN; CIGUATOXIN; DOMOIC ACID; EXCITOTOXIN; GLUTAMIC ACID; KAINIC ACID; MICROCYSTIN; NEUROTOXIN; SAXITOXIN;

ARTICLE; ATTRIBUTABLE RISK; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN FUNCTION; DIETARY INTAKE; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG STRUCTURE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPILEPTOGENESIS; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD WEB; GESTATION PERIOD; HIPPOCAMPAL SCLEROSIS; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; HUMAN VERSUS ANIMAL COMPARISON; MAMMAL; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROTOXICITY; NEWBORN PERIOD; NONHUMAN; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTOR; SEA FOOD; SHELLFISH; TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY; WATER SUPPLY;

ADULT; ALGAE; ANIMALS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPILEPSY, TEMPORAL LOBE; FEMALE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; HUMANS; KAINIC ACID; MARINE TOXINS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEUROTOXINS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ALGAE; ANIMALIA; CETACEA; CYANOBACTERIA;

EID: 77949268944     PISSN: 03069877     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.10.018     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Engel J., Pedley T.A. Introduction: what is epilepsy?. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook 2008, 1-7. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 2nd ed. J. Engel, T.A. Pedley (Eds.).
2. Engel J., Williamson P.D., Wieser H.G. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook 2008, 2479-2486. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 2nd ed. J. Engel, T.A. Pedley (Eds.).
3. Panayiotopoulos C.P. The epilepsies: seizures, syndromes and management 2005, Bladon Medical Publishing, Chipping Norton.
4. Cendes F., Cook M.J., Watson C., Andermann F., Fish D.R., Shorvon S.D., et al. Frequency and characteristics of dual pathology in patients with lesional epilepsy. Neurology 1995, 45(11):2058-2064.
5. Kazemi N.J., Cascino G.D. The double lesion: dual pathology and pathological correlation. The epilepsies: etiologies and prevention 1999, 349-356. Academic Press, San Diego. P. Kotagal, H. Lüders (Eds.).
6. Lawn N., Londono A., Sawrie S., Morawetz R., Martin R., Gilliam F., et al. Occipitoparietal epilepsy, hippocampal atrophy, and congenital developmental abnormalities. Epilepsia 2000, 41(12):1546-1553.
7. Levesque M.F., Nakasato N., Vinters H.V., Babb T.L. Surgical treatment of limbic epilepsy associated with extrahippocampal lesions: the problem of dual pathology. J Neurosurg 1991, 75(3):364-370.
8. Blümcke I., Thom M., Wiestler O.D. Ammon's horn sclerosis: a maldevelopmental disorder associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain Pathol 2002, 12(2):199-211.
9. Avanzini G.G., Treiman D.M., Engel J. Animal models of acquired epilepsies and status epilepticus. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook 2008, 415-444. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 2nd ed. J. Engel, T.A. Pedley (Eds.).
10. Brandt C., Potschka H., Löscher W., Ebert U. N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor blockade after status epilepticus protects against limbic brain damage but not against epilepsy in the kainate model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 2003, 118(3):727-740.
11. Olney J.W., Rhee V., Ho O.L. Kainic acid: a powerful neurotoxic analogue of glutamate. Brain Res 1974, 77(3):507-512.
12. Sari P., Kerr D.S. Domoic acid-induced hippocampal CA1 hyperexcitability independent of region CA3 activity. Epilepsy Res 2001, 47(1-2):65-76.
13. Sutherland G.R., Ross B.D., Lesiuk H., Peeling J., Pillay N., Pinsky C. Phosphate energy metabolism during domoic acid-induced seizures. Epilepsia 1993, 34(6):996-1002.
14. Arabadzisz D., Antal K., Parpan F., Emri Z., Fritschy J.M. Epileptogenesis and chronic seizures in a mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy are associated with distinct EEG patterns and selective neurochemical alterations in the contralateral hippocampus. Exp Neurol 2005, 194(1):76-90.
15. Bragin A., Wilson C.L., Engel J. Chronic epileptogenesis requires development of a network of pathologically interconnected neuron clusters: a hypothesis. Epilepsia 2000, 41(Suppl. 6):S144-S152.
16. Avanzini G., Franceschetti S. Mechanisms of epileptogenesis. The treatment of epilepsy 2004, 74-83. Blackwell Science, Malden. 2nd ed. S.D. Shorvon, E. Perucca, D.R. Fish, W.E. Dodson (Eds.).
17. French J.A., Williamson P.D., Thadani V.M., Darcey T.M., Mattson R.H., Spencer S.S., et al. Characteristics of medial temporal lobe epilepsy: I. Results of history and physical examination. Ann Neurol 1993, 34(6):774-780.
18. Laycock M.V., de Freitas A.S.W., Wright J.L.C. Glutamate agonists from marine algae. J Appl Phycol 1989, 1(2):113-122.
19. Teitelbaum J.S., Zatorre R.J., Carpenter S., Gendron D., Evans A.C., Gjedde A., et al. Neurologic sequelae of domoic acid intoxication due to the ingestion of contaminated mussels. N Engl J Med 1990, 322(25):1781-1787.
20. Perl T.M., Bedard L., Kosatsky T., Hockin J.C., Todd E.C., Remis R.S. An outbreak of toxic encephalopathy caused by eating mussels contaminated with domoic acid. N Engl J Med 1990, 322(25):1775-1780.
21. Wright J.L.C., Boyd R.K., Defreitas A.S.W., Falk M., Foxall R.A., Jamieson W.D., et al. Identification of domoic acid, a neuroexcitatory amino-acid, in toxic mussels from Eastern Prince-Edward-Island. Can J Chem 1989, 67(3):481-490.
22. Fritz L., Quilliam M.A., Wright J.L.C., Beale A.M., Work T.M. An outbreak of domoic acid poisoning attributed to the pennate diatom Pseudonitzschia australis. J Phycol 1992, 28(4):439-442.
23. Gulland F. Domoic acid toxicity in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) stranded along the central California coast, May-October 1998: Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service Working Group on Unusual Marine Mammal Mortality Events: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-17; 2000.
24. Gulland F.M., Haulena M., Fauquier D., Langlois G., Lander M.E., Zabka T., et al. Domoic acid toxicity in Californian sea lions (Zalophus californianus): clinical signs, treatment and survival. Vet Rec 2002, 150(15):475-480.
25. Scholin C.A., Gulland F., Doucette G.J., Benson S., Busman M., Chavez F.P., et al. Mortality of sea lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature 2000, 403(6765):80-84.
26. Work T.M., Barr B., Beale A.M., Fritz L., Quilliam M.A., Wright J.L.C. Epidemiology of domoic acid poisoning in brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) and Brandt cormorants (Phalacrocorax penicillatus) in California. J Zoo Wildl Med 1993, 24(1):54-62.
27. Silvagni P.A., Lowenstine L.J., Spraker T., Lipscomb T.P., Gulland F.M. Pathology of domoic acid toxicity in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Vet Pathol 2005, 42(2):184-191.
28. Goldstein T., Mazet J.A., Zabka T.S., Langlois G., Colegrove K.M., Silver M., et al. Novel symptomatology and changing epidemiology of domoic acid toxicosis in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus): an increasing risk to marine mammal health. Proc Biol Sci 2008, 275(1632):267-276.
29. Tryphonas L., Truelove J., Todd E., Nera E., Iverson F. Experimental oral toxicity of domoic acid in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and rats. Preliminary investigations. Food Chem Toxicol 1990, 28(10):707-715.
30. Cendes F., Andermann F., Carpenter S., Zatorre R.J., Cashman N.R. Temporal lobe epilepsy caused by domoic acid intoxication: evidence for glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in humans. Ann Neurol 1995, 37(1):123-126.
31. Xi D., Peng Y.G., Ramsdell J.S. Domoic acid is a potent neurotoxin to neonatal rats. Nat Toxins 1997, 5(2):74-79.
32. Doucette T.A., Strain S.M., Allen G.V., Ryan C.L., Tasker R.A. Comparative behavioural toxicity of domoic acid and kainic acid in neonatal rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2000, 22(6):863-869.
33. Levin E.D., Pizarro K., Pang W.G., Harrison J., Ramsdell J.S. Persisting behavioral consequences of prenatal domoic acid exposure in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005, 27(5):719-725.
34. Levin E.D., Pang W.G., Harrison J., Williams P., Petro A., Ramsdell J.S. Persistent neurobehavioral effects of early postnatal domoic acid exposure in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2006, 28(6):673-680.
35. Adams A.L., Doucette T.A., James R., Ryan C.L. Persistent changes in learning and memory in rats following neonatal treatment with domoic acid. Physiol Behav 2009, 96(4-5):505-512.
36. Perry M.A., Ryan C.L., Tasker R.A. Effects of low dose neonatal domoic acid administration on behavioural and physiological response to mild stress in adult rats. Physiol Behav 2009, 98(1-2):53-59.
37. Tanemura K., Igarashi K., Matsugami T.R., Aisaki K., Kitajima S., Kanno J. Intrauterine environment-genome interaction and children's development (2): brain structure impairment and behavioral disturbance induced in male mice offspring by a single intraperitoneal administration of domoic acid (DA) to their dams. J Toxicol Sci 2009, 34(Suppl. 2):SP279-SP286.
38. Maucher J.M., Ramsdell J.S. Domoic acid transfer to milk: evaluation of a potential route of neonatal exposure. Environ Health Perspect 2005, 113(4):461-464.
39. Mayer A.M. The marine toxin domoic acid may affect the developing brain by activation of neonatal brain microglia and subsequent neurotoxic mediator generation. Med Hypotheses 2000, 54(5):837-841.
40. Ramsdell J.S., Zabka T.S. In utero domoic acid toxicity: a fetal basis to adult disease in the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Mar Drugs 2008, 6(2):262-290.
41. Maucher J.M., Ramsdell J.S. Maternal-fetal transfer of domoic acid in rats at two gestational time points. Environ Health Perspect 2007, 115(12):1743-1746.
42. Casteleyn G., Chepurnov V.A., Leliaert F., Mann D.G., Bates S.S., Lundholm N., et al. Pseudo-nitzschia pungens (Bacillariophyceae): a cosmopolitan diatom species?. Harmful Algae 2008, 7(2):241-257.
43. Hasle G.R. Are most of the domoic acid-producing species of the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia cosmopolites?. Harmful Algae 2002, 1(2):137-146.
44. Trainer V.L., Hickey B.M., Bates S.S. Toxic diatoms. Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas 2008, 219-237. Academic Press, Burlington. P.J. Walsh, S.L. Smith, L.E. Fleming, H.M. Solo-Gabriele, W.H. Gerwick (Eds.).
45. Kotaki Y., Lundholm N., Onodera H., Kobayashi K., Bajarias F.F.A., Furio E.F., et al. Wide distribution of Nitzschia navis-varingica, a new domoic acid-producing benthic diatom found in Vietnam. Fish Sci 2004, 70(1):28-32.
46. Krock B., Tillmann U., John U., Cembella A. LC-MS-MS aboard ship: tandem mass spectrometry in the search for phycotoxins and novel toxigenic plankton from the North Sea. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008, 392(5):797-803.
47. Jeffery B., Barlow T., Moizer K., Paul S., Boyle C. Amnesic shellfish poison. Food Chem Toxicol 2004, 42(4):545-557.
48. Van Egmond HP, Van Apeldoorn ME, Speijers GJA. Marine biotoxins. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 80. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2004.
49. Waldichuk M. Amnesic shellfish poison. Mar Pollut Bull 1989, 20(8):359-360.
50. Bogan Y.M., Harkin A.L., Gillespie J., Kennedy D.J., Hess P., Slater J.W. The influence of size on domoic acid concentration in king scallop, Pecten maximus (L.). Harmful Algae 2007, 6(1):15-28.
51. Costa P.R., Rodrigues S.M., Botelho M.J., Sampayo M.A. A potential vector of domoic acid: the swimming crab Polybius henslowii Leach (Decapoda-brachyura). Toxicon 2003, 42(2):135-141.
52. Powell C.L., Ferdin M.E., Busman M., Kvitek R.G., Doucette G.J. Development of a protocol for determination of domoic acid in the sand crab (Emerita analoga): a possible new indicator species. Toxicon 2002, 40(5):485-492.
53. López-Rivera A., Pinto M., Insinilla A., Isla B.S., Uribe E., Alvarez G., et al. The occurrence of domoic acid linked to a toxic diatom bloom in a new potential vector: The tunicate Pyura chilensis (piure). Toxicon 2009, 54(6):754-762.
54. Lefebvre K.A., Bargu S., Kieckhefer T., Silver M.W. From sanddabs to blue whales: the pervasiveness of domoic acid. Toxicon 2002, 40(7):971-977.
55. Lefebvre KA, Robertson A. Domoic acid and human exposure risks: a review. Toxicon, in press.
56. Trainer V.L., Cochlan W.P., Erickson A., Bill B.D., Cox F.H., Borchert J.A., et al. Recent domoic acid closures of shellfish harvest areas in Washington State inland waterways. Harmful Algae 2007, 6(3):449-459.
57. Salgado C, Maneiro J, Correa J, Pérez JL, Arévalo F. ASP biotoxins in scallops: the practical application in Galicia of Commission Decision 2002/226/EC. In: Villalba A, Reguera B, Romalde JL, Beiras R, editors. Molluscan shellfish safety proceedings of the 4th international conference on molluscan shellfish safety Santiago de Compostela, Spain, June 4-8; 2002. Paris: Consellería de Pesca e Asuntos Marítimos da Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO; 2003. p. 169-77.
58. Altamirano R.C., Sierra-Beltrán A.P. Biotoxins from freshwater and marine harmful algal blooms occurring in Mexico. Toxin Rev 2008, 27(1):27-77.
59. Takahashi E., Yu Q., Eaglesham G., Connell D.W., McBroom J., Costanzo S., et al. Occurrence and seasonal variations of algal toxins in water, phytoplankton and shellfish from North Stradbroke Island, Queensland, Australia. Mar Environ Res 2007, 64(4):429-442.
60. Pulido O.M. Domoic acid toxicologic pathology: a review. Mar Drugs 2008, 6(2):180-219.
61. Dakshinamurti K., Sharma S.K., Sundaram M., Watanabe T. Hippocampal changes in developing postnatal mice following intrauterine exposure to domoic acid. J Neurosci 1993, 13(10):4486-4495.
62. Berg A.T. Epidemiologic aspects of epilepsy. The treatment of epilepsy: principles & practice 2006, 109-116. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 4th ed. E. Wyllie, A. Gupta, D.K. Lachhwani (Eds.).
63. Cascino G.D. Recognition of potential surgical candidates and video-electroencephalographic evaluation. The treatment of epilepsy: principles & practice 2006, 992-1007. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 4th ed. E. Wyllie, A. Gupta, D.K. Lachhwani (Eds.).
64. Lahteinen S., Pitkanen A., Saarelainen T., Nissinen J., Koponen E., Castren E. Decreased BDNF signalling in transgenic mice reduces epileptogenesis. Eur J Neurosci 2002, 15(4):721-734.
65. Weiergraber M., Henry M., Radhakrishnan K., Hescheler J., Schneider T. Hippocampal seizure resistance and reduced neuronal excitotoxicity in mice lacking the Cav2.3 E/R-type voltage-gated calcium channel. J Neurophysiol 2007, 97(5):3660-3669.
66. Wilson C.L., Maidment N.T., Shomer M.H., Behnke E.J., Ackerson L., Fried I., et al. Comparison of seizure related amino acid release in human epileptic hippocampus versus a chronic, kainate rat model of hippocampal epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1996, 26(1):245-254.
67. Jacoby H.I. Safety pharmacology and the GI tract. Toxicology of the gastrointestinal tract 2007, 53-80. CRC Press, Boca Raton. S.C. Gad (Ed.).
68. Wekell J.C., Gauglitz E.J., Barnett H.J., Hatfield C.L., Simons D., Ayres D. Occurrence of domoic acid in Washington State razor clams (Siliqua patula) during 1991-1993. Nat Toxins 1994, 2(4):197-205.
69. Grattan L., Roberts S., Trainer V., Boushey C., Burbacher T., Grant K., et al. Domoic acid neurotoxicity in American Indians: baseline characteristics of the coastal cohort [abstract]. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009, 31(4):239. [2009/8//].
70. Banerjee P.N., Hauser W.A. Incidence and prevalence. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook 2008, 45-56. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 2nd ed. J. Engel, T.A. Pedley (Eds.).
71. Forsgren L., Beghi E., Oun A., Sillanpää M. The epidemiology of epilepsy in Europe - a systematic review. Eur J Neurol 2005, 12(4):245-253.
72. Banerjee P.N., Filippi D., Allen Hauser W. The descriptive epidemiology of epilepsy - a review. Epilepsy Res 2009, 85(1):31-45.
73. Wiebe S. Epidemiology of temporal lobe epilepsy. Can J Neurol Sci 2000, 27(Suppl. 1):S6-S10. [discussion S20-1].
74. Tsao Z.J., Liao Y.C., Liu B.H., Su C.C., Yu F.Y. Development of a monoclonal antibody against domoic acid and its application in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and colloidal gold immunostrip. J Agric Food Chem 2007, 55(13):4921-4927.
75. Takata Y., Sato S., Ha D.V., Montojo U.M., Lirdwitayaprasit T., Kamolsiripichaiporn S., et al. Occurrence of domoic acid in tropical bivalves. Fish Sci 2009, 75(2):473-480.
76. Montojo U.M., Sakamoto S., Cayme M.F., Gatdula N.C., Furio E.F., Relox J.R., et al. Remarkable difference in accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins among bivalve species exposed to Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum bloom in Masinloc Bay, Philippines. Toxicon 2006, 48(1):85-92.
77. Choi K.D., Lee J.S., Lee J.O., Oh K.S., Shin I.S. Investigation of domoic acid in shellfish collected from Korean fish retail outlets. Food Sci Biotechnol 2009, 18(4):842-848.
78. Dao H.V., Takata Y., Omura T., Sato S., Fukuyo Y., Kodama M. Seasonal variation of domoic acid in a bivalve Spondylus versicolor in association with that in plankton samples in Nha Phu Bay, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam. Fish Sci 2009, 75(2):507-512.
79. Leite J.P., Babb T.L., Pretorius J.K., Kuhlman P.A., Yeoman K.M., Mathern G.W. Neuron loss, mossy fiber sprouting, and interictal spikes after intrahippocampal kainate in developing rats. Epilepsy Res 1996, 26(1):219-231.
80. Bouilleret V., Ridoux V., Depaulis A., Marescaux C., Nehlig A., Le Gal La Salle G. Recurrent seizures and hippocampal sclerosis following intrahippocampal kainate injection in adult mice: electroencephalography, histopathology and synaptic reorganization similar to mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 1999, 89(3):717-729.
81. Jay V., Becker L.E. Pathology of epilepsy. Textbook of neuropathology 1997, 387-406. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. 3rd ed. R.L. Davis, D.M. Robertson (Eds.).
82. Sloviter R.S. The neurobiology of temporal lobe epilepsy: too much information, not enough knowledge. C R Biol 2005, 328(2):143-153.
83. Sloviter R.S. Hippocampal epileptogenesis in animal models of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis: the importance of the "latent period" and other concepts. Epilepsia 2008, 49(Suppl. 9):85-92.
84. Choi B.H., Lapham L.W., Amin-Zaki L., Saleem T. Abnormal neuronal migration, deranged cerebral cortical organization, and diffuse white matter astrocytosis of human fetal brain: a major effect of methylmercury poisoning in utero. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1978, 37(6):719-733.
85. Sirois J.E., Atchison W.D. Effects of mercurials on ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels: a review. Neurotoxicology 1996, 17(1):63-84.
86. Carpio A., Hauser W.A. Epilepsy in the developing world. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2009, 9(4):319-326.
87. Mbuba C.K., Ngugi A.K., Newton C.R., Carter J.A. The epilepsy treatment gap in developing countries: a systematic review of the magnitude, causes, and intervention strategies. Epilepsia 2008, 49(9):1491-1503.
88. Adelöw C., Åndell E., Åmark P., Andersson T., Hellebro E., Ahlbom A., et al. Newly diagnosed single unprovoked seizures and epilepsy in Stockholm, Sweden: First report from the Stockholm Incidence Registry of Epilepsy (SIRE). Epilepsia 2009, 50(5):1094-1101.
89. D'Souza W.J., Fryer J.L., Quinn S.J., Taylor B.V., Ficker D.M., O'Brien T.J., et al. The Tasmanian Epilepsy Register - a community-based cohort. Background and methodology for patient recruitment from the Australian national prescription database. Neuroepidemiology 2007, 29(3-4):255-263.
90. Gulland FMD, Pérez-Cortés H, Urbán J, Rojas-Bracho L, Ylitalo G, Weir J, et al. Eastern North Pacific gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) unusual mortality event, 1999-2000: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-150; 2005.
91. de la Riva G.T., Johnson C.K., Gulland F.M.D., Langlois G.W., Heyning J.E., Rowles T.K., et al. Association of an unusual marine mammal mortality event with Pseudo-nitzschia spp. blooms along the southern California coastline. J Wildl Dis 2009, 45(1):109-121.
92. Sierra-Beltrán A.P., Cortés-Altamirano R., Gallo-Reynoso J.P., Licea-Duran S., Égido-Villarreal J. Is Pseudo-nitzschia pseudodelicatissima toxin the principal cause of sardines, dolphins, sea lions and pelicans mortality in 2004 in Mexico?. Harmful Algae News 2005, 29:6-8.
93. Fire S.E., Wang Z., Leighfield T.A., Morton S.L., McFee W.E., McLellan W.A., et al. Domoic acid exposure in pygmy and dwarf sperm whales (Kogia spp.) from southeastern and mid-Atlantic U.S. waters. Harmful Algae 2009, 8(5):658-664.
94. Anon. Dolphins died from toxin, tests show; 2004 [cited 2009 20th August]; web post (The Ledger, Lakeland, Florida)]. Available from: http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040321/NEWS/403210 559/1004.
95. Saladino B. Mammal, bird die-off, domoic acid - USA (California) (02). [web post (proMED-mail)]; 2002 [cited 2009 20th August]. Available from: http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1001:3580490710800680::::F240 0_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_ARCHIVE_NUMBER,F2400_P1001_USE_ARCHIVE:100 1,20020708.4702,Y.
96. Fraser D. Algae biotoxin studied in July whale deaths; 2003 [cited 2009 26th August]; web post: European Cetacean Bycatch Campaign (original source Cape Cod Times)]. Available from: http://www.eurocbc.org/domoic_acid_identified_in_ecoast_july_whale_death s_23oct2003page1335.html.
97. Gaydos JK. Bottlenose dolphins and brevetoxins: a coordinated research and response plan. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-32. Maryland: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service; 2006.
98. Flewelling L.J., Naar J.P., Abbott J.P., Baden D.G., Barros N.B., Bossart G.D., et al. Brevetoxicosis: red tides and marine mammal mortalities. Nature 2005, 435(7043):755-756.
99. Parsons E.C.M., Dolman S.J., Wright A.J., Rose N.A., Burns W.C.G. Navy sonar and cetaceans: Just how much does the gun need to smoke before we act?. Mar Pollut Bull 2008, 56(7):1248-1257.
100. Green G.A., Cardwell R., Brancato M.S. Comment on "Elevated accumulation of tributyltin and its breakdown products in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) found stranded along the U.S. Atlantic and gulf coasts" Environ Sci Technol 1997, 31(10):3032-3034.
101. Kannan K., Tanabe S. Response to comment on "Elevated accumulation of tributyltin and its breakdown products in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) found stranded along the U.S. Atlantic and gulf coasts" Environ Sci Technol 1997, 31(10):3035-3036.
102. Tanabe S. Contamination and toxic effects of persistent endocrine disrupters in marine mammals and birds. Mar Pollut Bull 2002, 45(1-12):69-77.
103. Kannan K., Blankenship A.L., Jones P.D., Giesy J.P. Toxicity reference values for the toxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls to aquatic mammals. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2000, 6(1):181-201.
104. O'Shea TJ, Reeves RR, Long AK, editors. Marine mammals and persistent ocean contaminants. Marine Mammal Commission Workshop 12-15 October, 1998; Keystone, Colorado: Marine Mammal Commission; 1999. p. 148pp.
105. Pollan M. In defence of food 2008, Penguin Group Australia, Camberwell.
106. Refraccion G, Orejas T. 250 dolphins 'lost' in Bataan waters. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 11 February; 2009.
107. Higa T., Kuniyoshi M. Toxins associated with medicinal and edible seaweeds. J Toxicol Toxin Rev 2000, 19(2):119-137.
108. Garthwaite I., Ross K.M., Miles C.O., Hansen R.P., Foster D., Wilkins A.L., et al. Polyclonal antibodies to domoic acid, and their use in immunoassays for domoic acid in sea water and shellfish. Nat Toxins 1998, 6(3-4):93-104.
109. Burns J.M., Schock T.B., Hsia M.H., Moeller P.D., Ferry J.L. Photostability of kainic acid in seawater. J Agric Food Chem 2007, 55(24):9951-9955.
110. Sato M., Nakano T., Takeuchi M., Kanno N., Nagahisa E., Sato Y. Distribution of neuroexcitatory amino acids in marine algae. Phytochemistry 1996, 42(6):1595-1597.
111. Xiao P.G., Fu S.L. Traditional antiparasitic drugs in China. Parasitol Today 1986, 2(12):353-355.
112. Nedumaran T., Perumal P. Temporal and spatial variations in the structure of macroalgal communities associated with mangroves of Pichavaram (South India). Bot Res Int 2009, 2(3):198-205.
113. Ramsey U.P., Bird C.J., Shacklock P.F., Laycock M.V., Wright J.L.C. Kainic acid and 1′-hydroxykainic acid from Palmariales. Nat Toxins 1994, 2(5):286-292.
114. de Oliveira M.N., Freitas A.L.P., Carvalho A.F.U., Sampaio T.M.T., Farias D.F., Teixeira D.I.A., et al. Nutritive and non-nutritive attributes of washed-up seaweeds from the coast of Ceará, Brazil. Food Chem 2009, 115(1):254-259.
115. McHugh DJ. A guide to the seaweed industry. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 441. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2003.
116. Almela C., Algora S., Benito V., Clemente M.J., Devesa V., Súñer M.A., et al. Heavy metal, total arsenic, and inorganic arsenic contents of algae food products. J Agric Food Chem 2002, 50(4):918-923.
117. van Netten C., Hoption Cann S.A., Morley D.R., van Netten J.P. Elemental and radioactive analysis of commercially available seaweed. Sci Total Environ 2000, 255(1-3):169-175.
118. Hesp B.R., Wrightson T., Mullaney I., Kerr D.S. Kainate receptor agonists and antagonists mediate tolerance to kainic acid and reduce high-affinity GTPase activity in young, but not aged, rat hippocampus. J Neurochem 2004, 90(1):70-79.
119. McCord M.C., Lorenzana A., Bloom C.S., Chancer Z.O., Schauwecker P.E. Effect of age on kainate-induced seizure severity and cell death. Neuroscience 2008, 154(3):1143-1153.
120. Wozniak D.F., Stewart G.R., Miller J.P., Olney J.W. Age-related sensitivity to kainate neurotoxicity. Exp Neurol 1991, 114(2):250-253.
121. Kesslak J.P., Yuan D., Neeper S., Cotman C.W. Vulnerability of the hippocampus to kainate excitotoxicity in the aged, mature and young adult rat. Neurosci Lett 1995, 188(2):117-120.
122. Hata M. Effects of maternal exposure to a single dose of kainic acid on the functional development of the brain in the rat. Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi 1994, 104(1):7-18. [in Japanese].
123. Rondouin G., Lerner-Natoli M., Hashizume A. Wet dog shakes in limbic versus generalized seizures. Exp Neurol 1987, 95(2):500-505.
124. Albala B.J., Moshé S.L., Okada R. Kainic-acid-induced seizures: a developmental study. Dev Brain Res 1984, 13(1):139-148.
125. Lynch M., Sayin U., Bownds J., Janumpalli S., Sutula T. Long-term consequences of early postnatal seizures on hippocampal learning and plasticity. Eur J Neurosci 2000, 12(7):2252-2264.
126. Velíšková J., Velíšek L., Sperber E.F., Haas K.Z., Moshé S.L. The development of epilepsy in the paediatric brain. Seizure 1994, 3(4):263-270.
127. Stafstrom C.E., Thompson J.L., Holmes G.L. Kainic acid seizures in the developing brain: status epilepticus and spontaneous recurrent seizures. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1992, 65(2):227-236.
128. Tremblay E., Nitecka L., Berger M.L., Ben-Ari Y. Maturation of kainic acid seizure-brain damage syndrome in the rat. I. Clinical, electrographic and metabolic observations. Neuroscience 1984, 13(4):1051-1072.
129. Lewis R.J. Ciguatera: Australian perspectives on a global problem. Toxicon 2006, 48(7):799-809.
130. Celesia G.G. Are the epilepsies disorders of ion channels?. Lancet 2003, 361(9365):1238-1239.
131. Berkovic S.F., Mulley J.C., Scheffer I.E., Petrou S. Human epilepsies: interaction of genetic and acquired factors. Trends Neurosci 2006, 29(7):391-397.
132. Avanzini G., Franceschetti S., Mantegazza M. Epileptogenic channelopathies: experimental models of human pathologies. Epilepsia 2007, 48(Suppl. 2):51-64.
133. Karamyan V.T., Speth R.C. Animal models of BMAA neurotoxicity: a critical review. Life Sci 2008, 82(5-6):233-246.
134. Buenz E.J., Howe C.L. Beta-methylamino-alanine (BMAA) injures hippocampal neurons in vivo. Neurotoxicology 2007, 28(3):702-704.
135. Karlsson O., Lindquist N.G., Brittebo E.B., Roman E. Selective brain uptake and behavioral effects of the cyanobacterial toxin BMAA (β-N-methylamino-l-alanine) following neonatal administration to rodents. Toxicol Sci 2009, 109(2):286-295.
136. Purdie EL, Samsudin S, Eddy FB, Codd GA. Effects of the cyanobacterial neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine on the early-life stage development of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Aquat Toxicol, in press.
137. Banack S.A., Johnson H.E., Cheng R., Cox P.A. Production of the neurotoxin BMAA by a marine cyanobacterium. Mar Drugs 2007, 5(4):180-196.
138. Cox P.A., Banack S.A., Murch S.J., Rasmussen U., Tien G., Bidigare R.R., et al. Diverse taxa of cyanobacteria produce beta-N-methylamino-l-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005, 102(14):5074-8078.
139. Cruz-Aguado R., Winkler D., Shaw C.A. Lack of behavioral and neuropathological effects of dietary beta-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006, 84(2):294-299.
140. Rosen J., Hellenas K.E. Determination of the neurotoxin BMAA (beta-N-methylamino-l-alanine) in cycad seed and cyanobacteria by LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry). Analyst 2008, 133(12):1785-1789.
141. Snyder L.R., Cruz-Aguado R., Sadilek M., Galasko D., Shaw C.A., Montine T.J. Lack of cerebral BMAA in human cerebral cortex. Neurology 2009, 72(15):1360-1361.
142. Steele J.C., McGeer P.L. The ALS/PDC syndrome of Guam and the cycad hypothesis. Neurology 2008, 70(21):1984-1990.
143. Stewart I., Falconer I.R. Cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins. Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas 2008, 271-296. Academic Press, Burlington. P.J. Walsh, S.L. Smith, L.E. Fleming, H.M. Solo-Gabriele, W.H. Gerwick (Eds.).
144. Falconer I.R., Smith J.V., Jackson A.R.B., Jones A., Runnegar M.T.C. Oral toxicity of a bloom of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa administered to mice over periods up to 1year. J Toxicol Environ Health 1988, 24(3):291-305.
145. Azevedo S.M., Chernoff N., Falconer I.R., Gage M., Hilborn E.D., Hooth M.J., et al. Human health effects workgroup report. Adv Exp Med Biol 2008, 619:579-606.
146. Fischer W.J., Altheimer S., Cattori V., Meier P.J., Dietrich D.R., Hagenbuch B. Organic anion transporting polypeptides expressed in liver and brain mediate uptake of microcystin. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005, 203(3):257-263.
147. Maidana M., Carlis V., Galhardi F.G., Yunes J.S., Geracitano L.A., Monserrat J.M., et al. Effects of microcystins over short- and long-term memory and oxidative stress generation in hippocampus of rats. Chem Biol Interact 2006, 159(3):223-234.
148. Hamilton B, Whittle N, Shaw G, Eaglesham G, Moore MR, Lewis RJ. Human fatality associated with Pacific ciguatoxin contaminated fish. Toxicon, in press.
149. Nicholson G.M., Lewis R.J. Ciguatoxins: cyclic polyether modulators of voltage-gated ion channel function. Mar Drugs 2006, 4(3):82-118.
150. Dickey R.W. Ciguatera toxins: chemistry, toxicology, and detection. Seafood and freshwater toxins: pharmacology physiology and detection 2008, 479-500. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 2nd ed. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
151. Lehane L., Lewis R.J. Ciguatera: recent advances but the risk remains. Int J Food Microbiol 2000, 61(2-3):91-125.
152. Steidinger K.A., Landsberg J.H., Flewelling L.J., Kirkpatrick B.A. Toxic dinoflagellates. Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas 2008, 239-256. Academic Press, Burlington. P.J. Walsh, S.L. Smith, L.E. Fleming, H.M. Solo-Gabriele, W.H. Gerwick (Eds.).
153. Al-Sabi A., McArthur J., Ostroumov V., French R.J. Marine toxins that target voltage-gated sodium channels. Mar Drugs 2006, 4(3):157-192.
154. Stewart I., Seawright A.A., Shaw G.R. Cyanobacterial poisoning in livestock, wild mammals and birds - an overview. Adv Exp Med Biol 2008, 619:613-637.
155. Gill S., Murphy M., Clausen J., Richard D., Quilliam M., MacKinnon S., et al. Neural injury biomarkers of novel shellfish toxins, spirolides: a pilot study using immunochemical and transcriptional analysis. Neurotoxicology 2003, 24(4-5):593-604.
156. Ramírez-Munguía N., Vera G., Tapia R. Epilepsy, neurodegeneration, and extracellular glutamate in the hippocampus of awake and anesthetized rats treated with okadaic acid. Neurochem Res 2003, 28(10):1517-1524.
157. Deeds JR, Schwartz MD. Human risk associated with palytoxin exposure. Toxicon, in press.
158. Wang D.Z. Neurotoxins from marine dinoflagellates: a brief review. Mar Drugs 2008, 6(2):349-371.
159. Wu C.H. Palytoxin: membrane mechanisms of action. Toxicon 2009, 54(8):1183-1189.
160. Nordt SP, Wu J, Zahller S, Clark RF, Cantrell FL. Palytoxin poisoning after dermal contact with zoanthid coral. J Emerg Med, in press.
161. Kita M., Uemura D. Diverse chemical structures and bioactivities of marine toxin: palytoxin and symbiodinolide. Seafood and freshwater toxins: pharmacology, physiology, and detection 2008, 665-674. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 2nd ed. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
162. Ojeda M.C.L., Otero E.C., Yotsu-Yamashita M., Sasaki M. Polycavernosides and gambierol: chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and detection. Seafood and freshwater toxins: pharmacology physiology and detection 2008, 597-628. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 2nd ed. L.M. Botana (Ed.).
163. Osswald J., Rellan S., Gago A., Vasconcelos V. Toxicology and detection methods of the alkaloid neurotoxin produced by cyanobacteria, anatoxin-a. Environ Int 2007, 33(8):1070-1089.
164. Aráoz R, Molgó J, Tandeau de Marsac N. Neurotoxic cyanobacterial toxins. Toxicon, in press.
165. Anderson P.A.V., Roberts-Misterly J., Greenberg R.M. The evolution of voltage-gated sodium channels: were algal toxins involved?. Harmful
166. Newman D.J., Cragg G.M. Marine natural products and related compounds in clinical and advanced preclinical trials. J Nat Prod 2004, 67(8):1216-1238.
167. Chiu J., DeSalle R., Lam H.M., Meisel L., Coruzzi G. Molecular evolution of glutamate receptors: a primitive signaling mechanism that existed before plants and animals diverged. Mol Biol Evol 1999, 16(6):826-838.
168. Lam H.M., Chiu J., Hsieh M.H., Meisel L., Oliveira I.C., Shin M., et al. Glutamate-receptor genes in plants. Nature 1998, 396(6707):125-126.
169. Bejarano A.C., VanDola F.M., Gulland F.M., Rowles T.K., Schwacke L.H. Production and toxicity of the marine biotoxin domoic acid and its effects on wildlife: a review. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2008, 14(3):544-567.
170. Kastak C.R., Schusterman R.J. Long-term memory for concepts in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Anim Cogn 2002, 5(4):225-232.
171. Schaffer P., Reeves C., Casper D.R., Davis C.R. Absence of neurotoxic effects in leopard sharks, Triakis semifasciata, following domoic acid exposure. Toxicon 2006, 47(7):747-752.
172. Lefebvre K.A., Dovel S.L., Silver M.W. Tissue distribution and neurotoxic effects of domoic acid in a prominent vector species, the northern anchovy Engraulis mordax. Mar Biol 2001, 138(4):693-700.
173. Montie E.W., Schneider G., Ketten D.R., Marino L., Touhey K.E., Hahn M.E. Volumetric neuroimaging of the atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) brain from in situ magnetic resonance images. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2008, 291(3):263-282.
174. Montie E.W., Schneider G.E., Ketten D.R., Marino L., Touhey K.E., Hahn M.E. Neuroanatomy of the subadult and fetal brain of the Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) from in situ magnetic resonance images. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2007, 290(12):1459-1479.
175. Sierra Beltrán A., Palafox-Uribe M., Grajales-Montiel J., Cruz-Villacorta A., Ochoa J.L. Sea bird mortality at Cabo San Lucas, Mexico: evidence that toxic diatom blooms are spreading. Toxicon 1997, 35(3):447-453.
176. Colombo M., Broadbent N. Is the avian hippocampus a functional homologue of the mammalian hippocampus?. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2000, 24(4):465-484.
177. Mettke-Hofmann C., Gwinner E. Long-term memory for a life on the move. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100(10):5863-5866.
178. Reebs SC. Long-term memory in fishes; 2008 [cited 2009 8th July]; Web document]. Available from: http://www.howfishbehave.ca/pdf/Long-term%20memory.pdf.
179. Rendell L., Whitehead H. Culture in whales and dolphins. Behav Brain Sci 2001, 24(2):309-324. [discussion 24-82].
180. Hof P.R., Van der Gucht E. Structure of the cerebral cortex of the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Cetacea, Mysticeti, Balaenopteridae). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2007, 290(1):1-31.
181. Marino L. Cetacean brains: how aquatic are they?. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2007, 290(6):694-700.
182. Milotova M., Riljak V., Jandova K., Bortelova J., Maresova D., Pokorny J., et al. Changes of hippocampal neurons after perinatal exposure to ethanol. Physiol Res 2008, 57(2):275-282.
183. Wang Y., Han T.Z. Prenatal exposure to heroin in mice elicits memory deficits that can be attributed to neuronal apoptosis. Neuroscience 2009, 160(2):330-338.
184. Samuelsson A.M., Jennische E., Hansson H.A., Holmang A. Prenatal exposure to interleukin-6 results in inflammatory neurodegeneration in hippocampus with NMDA/GABA(A) dysregulation and impaired spatial learning. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006, 290(5):R1345-R1356.
185. Manent J.B., Jorquera I., Mazzucchelli I., Depaulis A., Perucca E., Ben-Ari Y., et al. Fetal exposure to GABA-acting antiepileptic drugs generates hippocampal and cortical dysplasias. Epilepsia 2007, 48(4):684-693.
186. Roy T.S., Seidler F.J., Slotkin T.A. Prenatal nicotine exposure evokes alterations of cell structure in hippocampus and somatosensory cortex. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002, 300(1):124-133.
187. Lister J.P., Blatt G.J., DeBassio W.A., Kemper T.L., Tonkiss J., Galler J.R., et al. Effect of prenatal protein malnutrition on numbers of neurons in the principal cell layers of the adult rat hippocampal formation. Hippocampus 2005, 15(3):393-403.
188. Harry G.J., d'Hellencourt C.L. Dentate gyrus: alterations that occur with hippocampal injury. Neurotoxicology 2003, 24(3):343-356.
189. Choi D.W. Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron 1988, 1(8):623-634.
190. Oken E., Kleinman K.P., Berland W.E., Simon S.R., Rich-Edwards J.W., Gillman M.W. Decline in fish consumption among pregnant women after a national mercury advisory. Obstet Gynecol 2003, 102(2):346-351.
191. Endo T., Haraguchi K., Hotta Y., Hisamichi Y., Lavery S., Dalebout M.L., et al. Total mercury, methyl mercury, and selenium levels in the red meat of small cetaceans sold for human consumption in Japan. Environ Sci Technol 2005, 39(15):5703-5708.
192. Engel J., Taylor D.C., Trimble M.R. Neurobiology of behavioral disorders. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook 2008, 2077-2083. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 2nd ed. J. Engel, T.A. Pedley (Eds.).
193. Grandjean P., Landrigan P.J. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 2006, 368(9553):2167-2178. [2006/12/22/].