Percutaneous absorption and exposure assessment of pesticides

Journal of Applied Toxicology

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 91-114

  Ngo, Mai A ^a   O'Malley, Michael ^a,b   Maibach, Howard I ^c  

^a CALIFORNIA ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Dermal; In vitro; In vivo; QSAR; Skin

Indexed keywords

2 HYDROXYBIPHENYL; 2,4 DICHLOROPHENOXYACETIC ACID; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; BENZOIC ACID; CAFFEINE; CARBARIL; CERAMIDE; CHLORPYRIFOS; DIETHYLTOLUAMIDE; DIMETHOATE; DIMPYLATE; DIQUAT; ENDOSULFAN; ESTRADIOL; FENTANYL; GLYPHOSATE; HYDROCORTISONE; LIDOCAINE; MAGNESIUM SULFATE; MALATHION; METHIOCARB; NICOTINIC ACID; PACLOBUTRAZOL; PARATHION; PESTICIDE; PIRIMICARB; PROGESTERONE; PYRETHRIN; TESTOSTERONE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING; BLOOD LEVEL; DERMIS; DIFFUSION; DRUG ACCUMULATION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GROUPS BY AGE; HAIR FOLLICLE; HUMAN; HYDRATION; LIPOPHILICITY; MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS; NONHUMAN; OCCLUSION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATION; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SKIN ABSORPTION; SKIN APPENDAGE; SKIN PENETRATION; SKIN PERMEABILITY; STRATUM CORNEUM; TRANSDERMAL PATCH;

ANIMALS; PESTICIDES; SKIN; SKIN ABSORPTION;

EID: 77249092574     PISSN: 0260437X     EISSN: 10991263     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jat.1505     Document Type: Review

References (303)

1. Alaluf S, Atkins D, Barrett K, Blount M, Carter N, Heath A. 2002. Ethnic variation in melanin content and composition in photoexposed and photoprotected human skin. Pigment Cell Res./Eur. Soc. Pigment Cell Res. Int. Pigment Cell Soc. 15(2): 112-118.
2. Alikhan A, Farahmand S, Maibach HI. 2009. Correlating percutaneous absorption with physicochemical parameters in vivo in man: agricultural, steroid, and other organic compounds. J. Appl. Toxicol. 29: 590-596.
3. Aly R, Shirley C, Cunico B, Maibach HI. 1978. Effect of prolonged occlusion on the microbial flora, pH, carbon dioxide and transepidermal water loss on human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 71(6): 378-381.
4. Andersen KE, Maibach HI, Anjo MD. 1980. The guinea-pig: an animal model for human skin absorption of hydrocortisone, testosterone and benzoic acid? Br. J. Dermatol. 102(4): 447-453.
5. Apostoli P. 1999. Special Issue. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 72(4): 191-284.
6. Aszterbaum M, Menon GK, Feingold KR, Williams ML. 1992. Ontogeny of the epidermal barrier to water loss in the rat: correlation of function with stratum corneum structure and lipid content. Pediatr. Res. 31(4 Pt 1): 308-317.
7. Baker H, Blair CP. 1968. Cell replacement in the human stratum corneum in old age. Br. J. Dermatol. 80(6): 367-372.
8. Barbero AM, Frasch HF. 2009. Pig and guinea pig skin as surrogates for human in vitro penetration studies: a quantitative review. Toxicol. in Vitro 23(1): 1-13.
9. Barker N, Hadgraft J, Rutter N. 1987. Skin permeability in the newborn. J. Invest. Dermatol. 88(4): 409-411.
10. Bartek MJ, LaBudde JA, Maibach HI. 1972. Skin permeability in vivo: comparison in rat, rabbit, pig and man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 58(3): 114-123.
11. Baynes RE, Riviere JE. 1998. Influence of inert ingredients in pesticide formulations on dermal absorption of carbaryl. Am. J. Vet. Res. 59(2): 168-175.
12. Baynes RE, Halling KB, Riviere JE. 1997. The influence of diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) on the percutaneous absorption of permethrin and carbaryl. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 144(2): 332-339.
13. Baynes RE, Xia XR, Imran M, Riviere JE. 2008. Quantification of chemical mixture interactions modulating dermal absorption using a multiple membrane fiber array. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 21(3): 591-599.
14. Beauvais S. 2008. Estimation of Exposure of Persons in California to Pesticide Products That Contain Endosulfan. California Department of Pesticide Regulation: Sacramento, CA.
15. Beauvais S, Powell S, Zhao W. 2007. Surrogate Handler Exposure Estimates for Use in Assessments by the California Department of Pesticide Regulation. Sacramento, CA.
16. Behl CR, Barrett M. 1981. Hydration and percutaneous absorption II: Influence of hydration on water and alkanol permeation through Swiss mouse skin; comparison with hairless mouse. J. Pharm. Sci. 70(11): 1212-1215.
17. Behl CR, Flynn GL, Kurihara T, Harper N, Smith W, Higuchi WI, Ho NF, Pierson CL. 1980. Hydration and percutaneous absorption: I. Influence of hydration on alkanol permeation through hairless mouse skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 75(4): 346-352.
18. Behl CR, El-Sayed AA, Flynn GL. 1983. Hydration and percutaneous absorption IV: influence of hydration on n-alkanol permeation through rat skin; comparison with hairless and Swiss mice. J. Pharm. Sci. 72(1): 79-82.
19. Benech-Kieffer F, Wegrich P, Schwarzenbach R, Klecak G, Weber T, Leclaire J, Schaefer H. 2000. Percutaneous absorption of sunscreens in vitro: interspecies comparison, skin models and reproducibility aspects. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 13(6): 324-335.
20. Berardesca E, Maibach H. 1996. Racial differences in skin pathophysiology. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 34(4): 667-672.
21. Berardesca E, Maibach H. 2003. Ethnic skin: overview of structure and function. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 48(6 suppl.): S139-142.
22. Berardesca E, de Rigal J, Leveque JL, Maibach HI. 1991. In vivo biophysical characterization of skin physiological differences in races. Dermatologica 182(2): 89-93.
23. Berardesca E, Pirot F, Singh M, Maibach H. 1998. Differences in stratum corneum pH gradient when comparing white Caucasian and black African-American skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 139(5): 855-857.
24. Blank IH, Scheuplein RJ. 1969. Transport into and within the skin Br. J. Dermatol. 81(suppl. 4): 4-10.
25. Blume U, Ferracin J, Verschoore M, Czernielewski JM, Schaefer H. 1991. Physiology of the vellus hair follicle: hair growth and sebum excretion. Br. J. Dermatol. 124(1): 21-28.
26. Bouwman T, Cronin MT, Bessems JG, van de Sandt JJ. 2008. Improving the applicability of (Q)SARs for percutaneous penetration in regulatory risk assessment. Human Exp. Toxicol. 27(4): 269-276.
27. Britz MB, Maibach HI, Anjo DM. 1980. Human percutaneous penetration of hydrocortisone: the vulva. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 267(3): 313-316.
28. Bronaugh RL, Franz TJ. 1986. Vehicle effects on percutaneous absorption: in vivo and in vitro comparisons with human skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 115(1): 1-11.
29. Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI. 1985. Percutaneous absorption of nitroaromatic compounds: in vivo and in vitro studies in the human and monkey. J. Invest. Dermatol. 84(3): 180-183.
30. Bronaugh RL, Stewart RF. 1984. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies III: hydrophobic compounds. J. Pharm. Sci. 73(9): 1255-1258.
31. Bronaugh RL, Stewart RF. 1985. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies V: Permeation through damaged skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 74(10): 1062-1066.
32. Bronaugh RL, Stewart RF. 1986. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies. VI: Preparation of the barrier layer. J. Pharm. Sci. 75(5): 487-491.
33. Bronaugh RL, Stewart RF, Congdon ER. 1982. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies. II. Animal models for human skin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 62(3): 481-488.
34. Bronaugh RL, Weingarten DP, Lowe NJ. 1986. Differential rates of percutaneous absorption through the eczematous and normal skin of a monkey. J. Invest. Dermatol. 87(4): 451-453.
35. Bronaugh RL, Stewart RF, Storm JE. 1989. Extent of cutaneous metabolism during percutaneous absorption of xenobiotics. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 99(3): 534-543.
36. Brown HS, Bishop DR, Rowan CA. 1984. The role of skin absorption as a route of exposure for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water. Am. J. Public Health 74(5): 479-484.
37. Bucks D, Maibach HI. 1999. Occlusion does not univormly enhance penetration in vivo. In Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds). Percutaneous Absorption: Drugs, Cosmetics, Mechanisms, Methodology, 3rd edn New York: Dekker; 81-105.
38. Bucks DA, Maibach HI, Guy RH. 1985. Percutaneous absorption of steroids: effect of repeated application. J. Pharm. Sci. 74(12): 1337-1339.
39. Bucks DA, McMaster JR, Maibach HI, Guy RH. 1988. Bioavailability of topically administered steroids: a 'mass balance' technique. J. Invest. Dermatol. 91(1): 29-33.
40. Bucks DA, Hinz RS, Sarason R, Maibach HI, Guy RH. 1990. In vivo percutaneous absorption of chemicals: a multiple dose study in rhesus monkeys. Food Chem. Toxicol. 28(2): 129-132.
41. Bucks D, Guy R, Maibach HI. 1991. Effects of occlusion. In In vitro Percutaneous Absorption: Principles, Fundamentals, and Applications, Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds). CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL; 85-114.
42. Buist HE, Schaafsma G, van de Sandt JJ. 2009. Relative absorption and dermal loading of chemical substances: Consequences for risk assessment. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 54: 221-228.
43. Cartlidge PHT, Rutter N. 1991. Skin barrier function. In Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, Polin RA, Fox WW (eds). Saunders: Philadelphia, PA; 569-584.
44. Chambin O, Bevan B, Teillaud E (eds). 1993. Pig Skin as an Animal Model for in Vitro Percutaneous Absorption Studies. STS Publishing: Cardiff; 111-116.
45. Chang SK, Riviere JE. 1991. Percutaneous absorption of parathion in vitro in porcine skin: effects of dose, temperature, humidity, and perfusate composition on absorptive flux. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 17(3): 494-504.
46. Chang SK, Brownie C, Riviere JE. 1994. Percutaneous absorption of topical parathion through porcine skin: in vitro studies on the effect of environmental perturbations. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 17(6): 434-439.
47. Chiou YB, Blume-Peytavi U. 2004. Stratum corneum maturation. A review of neonatal skin function. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 17(2): 57-66.
48. Chu I, Dick D, Bronaugh R, Tryphonas L. 1996. Skin reservoir formation and bioavailability of dermally administered chemicals in hairless guinea pigs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 34(3): 267-276.
49. Cnubben NH, Elliott GR, Hakkert BC, Meuling WJ, van de Sandt JJ. 2002. Comparative in vitro-in vivo percutaneous penetration of the fungicide ortho-phenylphenol. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 35(2 Pt 1): 198-208.
50. Coderch L, Lopez O, de la Maza A, Parra JL. 2003. Ceramides and skin function. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 4(2): 107-129.
51. Colombo G, Zucchi A, Allegra F, Colombo P, Zani F, Santi P. 2003. In vitro and in vivo study of 5-methoxypsoralen skin concentration after topical application. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 16(2): 130-136.
52. Coronado GD, Thompson B, Strong L, Griffith WC, Islas I. 2004. Agricultural task and exposure to organophosphate pesticides among farmworkers. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(2): 142-147.
53. Courtheoux S, Pechenot D, Bucks DA, Marty JP, Maibach HI, Wepierre J. 1986. Effect of repeated skin administration on in vivo percutaneous absorption of drugs. Br. J. Dermatol. 115(suppl. 31): 49-52.
54. 14C-endosulfan with extended test duration. Unpublished study submitted by Hoechst Celanese Corporation, laboratory project no. WIL 39029. DPR Registration Document 182-060.
55. Crutcher W, Maibach HI. 1969. The effect of perfusion rate on in vitro percutaneous penetration. J. Invest. Dermatol. 53(4): 264-269.
56. Cua AB, Wilhelm KP, Maibach HI. 1990. Cutaneous sodium lauryl sulphate irritation potential: age and regional variability. Br. J. Dermatol. 123(5): 607-613.
57. de Heer C, Bosman-Hoefakker S, Hakkert BC. 1999. Principles for Study Protocols Addressing the Dermal Absorption of Pesticides. TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute: The Netherlands.
58. Dick IP, Scott RC. 1992. Pig ear skin as an in-vitro model for human skin permeability. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 44(8): 640-645.
59. Downes AM, Sweeney TM, Matoltsy AG. 1968. On the diffusion of tritiated water through skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 50(3): 261.
60. Driver J, Ross J, Mihlan G, Lunchick C, Landenberger B. 2007. Derivation of single layer clothing penetration factors from the pesticide handlers exposure database. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 49(2): 125-137.
61. Dupuis D, Rougier A, Roguet R, Lotte C, Kalopissis G. 1984. In vivo relationship between horny layer reservoir effect and percutaneous absorption in human and rat. J. Invest. Dermatol. 82(4): 353-356.
62. EC. 2004. Guidance Document on Dermal Absorption. European Commission, Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Directorate E - Food Safety: Plant Health, Animal Health and Welfare, International Questions.
63. Elias PM, Brown BE, Ziboh VA. 1980. The permeability barrier in essential fatty acid deficiency: evidence for a direct role for linoleic acid in barrier function. J. Invest. Dermatol. 74(4): 230-233.
64. Elias PM, Cooper ER, Korc A, Brown BE. 1981. Percutaneous transport in relation to stratum corneum structure and lipid composition. J. Invest. Dermatol. 76(4): 297-301.
65. EU. 2006. Opinion on Basic Criteria for the in Vitro Assessment of Dermal Absorption of Cosmetic Ingredients. Scientific Committee on Consumer Products, Health and Consumer Protection, European Union.
66. Farage MA, Miller KW, Elsner P, Maibach HI. 2007. Structural characteristics of the aging skin: a review. Cutaneous Ocular Toxicol. 26(4): 343-357.
67. Farage MA, Miller KW, Maibach HI (eds). 2010. Textbook of Aging Skin. Heidelberg: Springer, in press.
68. Farahmand S, Maibach HI. 2009a. Estimating skin permeability from physiochemical characteristics of drugs: A comparison between conventional models and an in vivo-based approach. Int. J. Pharm., doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.03.028.
69. Farahmand S, Maibach HI. 2009b. Transdermal drug pharmacokinetics in man: Interindividual variability and partial prediction. Int. J. Pharm. 367(1-2): 1-15.
70. Fartasch M, Schnetz E, Diepgen TL. 1998. Characterization of detergent-induced barrier alterations - effect of barrier cream on irritation. J. Invest. Dermatol. Symposium Proc./Soc. Invest. Dermatol. 3(2): 121-127.
71. 14C hydrocortisone through normal skin: the effect of stripping and occlusion. Arch. Dermatol. 91: 661-666.
72. Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1967. Regional variation in percutaneous penetration of 14C cortisol in man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 48(2): 181-183.
73. Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1969. Percutaneous penetration of steroids in man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 52(1): 89-94.
74. Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1974a. Percutaneous penetration of some pesticides and herbicides in man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 28(1): 126-132.
75. Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1974b. Percutaneous penetration of hydrocortisone with urea. Arch. Dermatol. 109(1): 58-59.
76. Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1974c. Percutaneous penetration of some pesticides and herbicides in man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 28: 126-132.
77. Fenske RA. 1989. Validation of environmental monitoring by biological monitoring. In Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure: Measurement, Estimation, and Risk Reduction, Wang RGM, Franklin CA, Honeycutt RC, Reinert JC (eds). American Chemical Society: Washington, DC; 70-84.
78. Fenske RA. 1990. Nonuniform dermal deposition patterns during occupational exposure to pesticides. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 19(3): 332-337.
79. Fenske NA, Lober CW. 1986. Structural and functional changes of normal aging skin. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 15(4 Pt 1): 571-585.
80. Fenske RA, Birnbaum SG, Methner MM, Soto R. 1989. Methods for assessing fieldworker hand exposure to pesticides during peach harvesting. Bulletin Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 43(6): 805-813.
81. 14C] captan in young and adult rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 36(3): 251-271.
82. Franz TJ. 1975. Percutaneous absorption on the relevance of in vitro data. J. Invest. Dermatol. 64(3): 190-195.
83. Gean CJ, Tur E, Maibach HI, Guy RH. 1989. Cutaneous responses to topical methyl nicotinate in black, oriental, and caucasian subjects. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 281(2): 95-98.
84. Geer LA, Cardello N, Dellarco MJ, Leighton TJ, Zendzian RP, Roberts JD, Buckley TJ. 2004. Comparative analysis of passive dosimetry and biomonitoring for assessing chlorpyrifos exposure in pesticide workers. Annals Occup. Hyg. 48(8): 683-695.
85. Geinoz S, Guy RH, Testa B, Carrupt PA. 2004. Quantitative structure-permeation relationships (QSPeRs) to predict skin permeation: a critical evaluation. Pharm. Res. 21(1): 83-92.
86. Ghadially R, Reed JT, Elias PM. 1996. Stratum corneum structure and function correlates with phenotype in psoriasis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 107(4): 558-564.
87. Gould AR, Sharp PJ, Smith DR, Stegink AJ, Chase CJ, Kovacs JC, Penglis S, Chatterton BE, Bunn CL. 2003. Increased permeability of psoriatic skin to the protein, plasminogen activator inhibitor 2. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 295(6): 249-254.
88. Greaves MS. 1971. The in vivo catabolism of cortisol of by human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 57(2): 100-107.
89. Grubauer G, Feingold KR, Harris RM, Elias PM. 1989. Lipid content and lipid type as determinants of the epidermal permeability barrier. J. Lipid Res. 30(1): 89-96.
90. Guy RH, Maibach HI. 1984. Correction factors for determining body exposure from forearm percutaneous absorption data. J. Appl. Toxicol. 4(1): 26-28.
91. Guy RH, Hadgraft J, Maibach HI. 1985. Percutaneous absorption in man: a kinetic approach. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 78(1): 123-129.
92. Haftek M, Teillon MH, Schmitt D. 1998. Stratum corneum, corneodesmosomes and ex vivo percutaneous penetration. Microsc. Res. Tech. 43(3): 242-249.
93. Hall LL, Fisher HL, Sumler MR, Hughes MF, Shah PV. 1992. Age-related percutaneous penetration of 2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol (dinoseb) in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 19(2): 258-267.
94. Hardt J, Angerer J. 2003. Biological monitoring of workers after the application of insecticidal pyrethroids. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 76(7): 492-498.
95. Harpin VA, Rutter N. 1983. Barrier properties of the newborn infant's skin. J. Pediatr. 102(3): 419-425.
96. Haskell D. 1998. Canada-United States Trade Agreement (CUSTA) Working Group, final draft of position paper for issue eight: typical workdays for various crops. Sacramento, CaA.
97. Hatch KL, Maibach HI. 1986. Textile chemical finish dermatitis. Contact Derm. 14(1): 1-13.
98. Hawkins GS, Jr., Reifenrath WG. 1984. Development of an in vitro model for determining the fate of chemicals applied to skin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 4(2 Pt 2): S133-144.
99. Hawkins GS, Reifenrath WG. 1986. Influence of skin source, penetration cell fluid, and partition coefficient on in vitro skin penetration. J. Pharm. Sci. 75(4): 378-381.
100. Heudorf U, Angerer J. 2001. Metabolites of pyrethroid insecticides in urine specimens: current exposure in an urban population in Germany. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(3): 213-217.
101. Hezemans-Boer M, Toonstra J, Meulenbelt J, Zwaveling JH, Sangster B, van Vloten WA. 1988. Skin lesions due to exposure to methyl bromide. Arch. Dermatol. 124(6): 917-921.
102. Hoath SB, Maibach HI (eds). 2003. Neonatal Skin: Structure and Function, 2nd edn. Marcel Dekker: New York.
103. Holland JM, Kao JY, Whitaker MJ. 1984. A multisample apparatus for kinetic evaluation of skin penetration in vitro: the influence of viability and metabolic status of the skin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 72(2): 272-280.
104. Horikoshi T, Balin AK, Carter DM. 1986. Effect of oxygen on the growth of human epidermal keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 86(4): 424-427.
105. Hueber F, Wepierre J, Schaefer H. 1992. Role of transepidermal and transfollicular routes in percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone and testosterone: in vivo study in the hairless rat. Skin Pharmacol. 5(2): 99-107.
106. Hueber F, Besnard M, Schaefer H, Wepierre J. 1994. Percutaneous absorption of estradiol and progesterone in normal and appendage-free skin of the hairless rat: lack of importance of nutritional blood flow. Skin Pharmacol. 7(5): 245-256.
107. Hunziker N, Feldmann RJ, Maibach H. 1978. Animal models of percutaneous penetration: comparison between Mexican hairless dogs and man. Dermatologica 156(2): 79-88.
108. Illel B, Schaefer H, Wepierre J, Doucet O. 1991. Follicles play an important role in percutaneous absorption. J. Pharm. Sci. 80(5): 424-427.
109. Imokawa G, Abe A, Jin K, Higaki Y, Kawashima M, Hidano A. 1991. Decreased level of ceramides in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor in atopic dry skin? J. Invest. Dermatol. 96(4): 523-526.
110. Jacobi U, Engel K, Patzelt A, Worm M, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2007a. Penetration of pollen proteins into the skin. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 20(6): 297-304.
111. Jacobi U, Kaiser M, Toll R, Mangelsdorf S, Audring H, Otberg N, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2007b. Porcine ear skin: an in vitro model for human skin. Skin Res. Technol. 13(1): 19-24.
112. Jakasa I, Verberk MM, Bunge AL, Kruse J, Kezic S. 2006. Increased permeability for polyethylene glycols through skin compromised by sodium lauryl sulphate. Exp. Dermatol. 15(10): 801-807.
113. Jakasa I, Verberk MM, Esposito M, Bos JD, Kezic S. 2007. Altered penetration of polyethylene glycols into uninvolved skin of atopic dermatitis patients. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127(1): 129-134.
114. Johanson G, Boman A. 1991. Percutaneous absorption of 2-butoxyethanol vapour in human subjects. Br. J. Ind. Med. 48(11): 788-792.
115. Johnson LC, Corah NL. 1963. Racial differences in skin resistance. Science (NY) 139(3556): 766-767.
116. Kao J, Carver MP. 1990. Cutaneous metabolism of xenobiotics. Drug Metab. Rev. 22(4): 363-410.
117. Kao J, Hall J. 1987. Skin absorption and cutaneous first pass metabolism of topical steroids: in vitro studies with mouse skin in organ culture. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241(2): 482-487.
118. Kao J, Hall J, Shugart LR, Holland JM. 1984. An in vitro approach to studying cutaneous metabolism and disposition of topically applied xenobiotics. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 75(2): 289-298.
119. Kao J, Patterson FK, Hall J. 1985. Skin penetration and metabolism of topically applied chemicals in six mammalian species, including man: an in vitro study with benzo[a]pyrene and testosterone. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 81(3 Pt 1): 502-516.
120. Kao J, Hall J, Helman G. 1988. In vitro percutaneous absorption in mouse skin: influence of skin appendages. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 94(1): 93-103.
121. Kemppainen BW, Reifenrath WG, Stafford RG, Mehta M. 1991. Methods for in vitro skin absorption studies of a lipophilic toxin produced by red tide. Toxicology 66(1): 1-17.
122. Kompaore F, Tsuruta H. 1993. In vivo differences between Asian, black and white in the stratum corneum barrier function. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 65(1 suppl.): S223-225.
123. Kompaore F, Marty JP, Dupont C. 1993. In vivo evaluation of the stratum corneum barrier function in blacks, Caucasians and Asians with two noninvasive methods. Skin Pharmacol. 6(3): 200-207.
124. Krieger RI. 1995. Pesticide exposure assessment. Toxicol. Lett. 82-83: 65-72.
125. Kruse J, Verberk CWE. 2008. Modelling of systemic uptake of agrochemicals after dermal exposure; effects of formulation, application and exposure scenarios. Environmentalist 28(1): 57-65.
126. Kruse J, Golden D, Wilkinson S, Williams F, Kezic S, Corish J. 2007. Analysis, interpretation, and extrapolation of dermal permeation data using diffusion-based mathematical models. J. Pharm. Sci. 96(3): 682-703.
127. Kuhn K, Wieseler B, Leng G, Idel H. 1999. Toxicokinetics of pyrethroids in humans: consequences for biological monitoring. Bulletin Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 62(2): 101-108.
128. Lademann J, Weigmann H, Rickmeyer C, Barthelmes H, Schaefer H, Mueller G, Sterry W. 1999. Penetration of titanium dioxide microparticles in a sunscreen formulation into the horny layer and the follicular orifice. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 12(5): 247-256.
129. Lademann J, Otberg N, Richter H, Weigmann HJ, Lindemann U, Schaefer H, Sterry W. 2001. Investigation of follicular penetration of topically applied substances. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 14(suppl. 1): 17-22.
130. Lademann J, Richter H, Schaefer UF, Blume-Peytavi U, Teichmann A, Otberg N, Sterry W. 2006. Hair follicles - a long-term reservoir for drug delivery. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 19(4): 232-236.
131. Lademann J, Richter H, Teichmann A, Otberg N, Blume-Peytavi U, Luengo J, Weiss B, Schaefer UF, Lehr CM, Wepf R et al. 2007. Nanoparticles - an efficient carrier for drug delivery into the hair follicles. Eur J. Pharm. Biopharm. 66(2): 159-164.
132. Lampe MA, Burlingame AL, Whitney J, Williams ML, Brown BE, Roitman E, Elias PM. 1983. Human stratum corneum lipids: characterization and regional variations. J. Lipid Res. 24(2): 120-130.
133. Lapiere CM. 1990. The ageing dermis: the main cause for the appearance of 'old' skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 122(suppl. 35): 5-11.
134. Lehman PA, Franz TJ. 1993. Effect of age and diet on stratum corneum barrier function in the Fischer 344 female rat. J. Invest. Dermatol. 100(2): 200-204.
135. Leng G, Leng A, Kuhn KH, Lewalter J, Pauluhn J. 1997a. Human dose-excretion studies with the pyrethroid insecticide cyfluthrin: urinary metabolite profile following inhalation. Xenobiotica; Fate Foreign Compounds Biol. Systems 27(12): 1273-1283.
136. Leng G, Kuhn KH, Idel H. 1997b. Biological monitoring of pyrethroids in blood and pyrethroid metabolites in urine: applications and limitations. Sci. Total Environ. 199(1-2): 173-181.
137. Levin J, Maibach H. 2005. The correlation between transepidermal water loss and percutaneous absorption: an overview. J. Control Release 103(2): 291-299.
138. Lotte C, Rougier A, Wilson DR, Maibach HI. 1987. In vivo relationship between transepidermal water loss and percutaneous penetration of some organic compounds in man: effect of anatomic site. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 279(5): 351-356.
139. Maibach HI, Feldmann RJ. 1967. The effect of DMSO on percutaneous penetration of hydrocortisone and testosterone in man. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 141(1): 423-427.
140. Maibach HI, Feldmann RJ. 1974. Systemic Absorption of Pesticides Through the Skin of Man. Occupational Exposure to Pesticides. Federal Working Group on Pest Management: Washington, DC; 120-127.
141. Maibach HI, Wester RC. 1989. Percutaneous absorption: in vivo methods in humans and animals. J. Am. College Toxicol. 8(5): 803-813.
142. Maibach HI, Feldman RJ, Milby TH, Serat WF. 1971. Regional variation in percutaneous penetration in man. Arch. Environ. Health 23(3): 208-211.
143. Mangelsdorf S, Otberg N, Maibach HI, Sinkgraven R, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2006. Ethnic variation in vellus hair follicle size and distribution. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 19(3): 159-167.
144. Marrakchi S, Maibach HI. 2006. Sodium lauryl sulfate-induced irritation in the human face: regional and age-related differences. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 19(3): 177-180.
145. Mavon A, Miquel C, Lejeune O, Payre B, Moretto P. 2007. In vitro percutaneous absorption and in vivo stratum corneum distribution of an organic and a mineral sunscreen. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 20(1): 10-20.
146. McDougal JN, Jepson GW, Clewell HJ, 3rd, Gargas ML, Andersen ME. 1990. Dermal absorption of organic chemical vapors in rats and humans. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 14(2): 299-308.
147. Menczel E, Maibach HI. 1970. In vitro human percutaneous penetration of benzyl alcohol and testosterone: epidermal-dermal retention. J. Invest. Dermatol. 54(5): 386-394.
148. Meuling WJ, Franssen AC, Brouwer DH, van Hemmen JJ. 1997. The influence of skin moisture on the dermal absorption of propoxur in human volunteers: a consideration for biological monitoring practices. Sci. Total Environ. 199(1-2): 165-172.
149. Meuling WJ, Ravensberg LC, Roza L, van Hemmen JJ. 2005. Dermal absorption of chlorpyrifos in human volunteers. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 78(1): 44-50.
150. Mills PC, Magnusson BM, Cross SE. 2004. Investigation of in vitro transdermal absorption of fentanyl from patches placed on skin samples obtained from various anatomic regions of dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 65(12): 1697-1700.
151. Moody RP, Chu I. 1995. Dermal exposure to environmental contaminants in the Great Lakes. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(suppl. 9): 103-114.
152. Moody RP, Maibach HI. 2006. Skin decontamination: Importance of the wash-in effect. Food Chem. Toxicol. 44(11): 1783-1788.
153. Moody RP, Franklin CA, Ritter L, Maibach HI. 1990. Dermal absorption of the phenoxy herbicides 2,4-D, 2,4-D amine, 2,4-D isooctyl, and 2,4,5-T in rabbits, rats, rhesus monkeys, and humans: a cross-species comparison. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 29(3): 237-245.
154. Moody RP, Wester RC, Melendres JL, Maibach HI. 1992. Dermal absorption of the phenoxy herbicide 2,4-D dimethylamine in humans: effect of DEET and anatomic site. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 36(3): 241-250.
155. Moody RP, Nadeau B, Chu I. 1995. In vivo and in vitro dermal absorption of benzo[a]pyrene in rat, guinea pig, human and tissue-cultured skin. J. Dermatol. Sci. 9(1): 48-58.
156. Moss GP, Dearden JC, Patel H, Cronin MT. 2002. Quantitative structure-permeability relationships (QSPRs) for percutaneous absorption. Toxicol. in Vitro 16(3): 299-317.
157. Nakai JS, Chu I, Li-Muller A, Aucoin R. 1997. Effect of environmental conditions on the penetration of benzene through human skin. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 51(5): 447-462.
158. Nakai JS, Stathopulos PB, Campbell GL, Chu I, Li-Muller A, Aucoin R. 1999. Penetration of chloroform, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene through human skin. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 58(3): 157-170.
159. Nathan D, Sakr A, Lichtin JL, Bronaugh RL. 1990. In vitro skin absorption and metabolism of benzoic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, and benzocaine in the hairless guinea pig. Pharm. Res. 7(11): 1147-1151.
160. Ng KM, Chu I, Bronaugh RL, Franklin CA, Somers DA. 1992. Percutaneous absorption and metabolism of pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene, and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate: comparison of in vitro and in vivo results in the hairless guinea pig. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 115(2): 216-223.
161. Ngo MA, Sinitsyna NN, Qin Q, Rice RH. 2007. Oxygen-dependent differentiation of human keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127(2): 354-361.
162. Ngo MA, Smiley-Jewell S, Aldous P, Pinkerton KE. 2008. Nanomaterials and the environment. In Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Environmental and Health Impacts, Grassian VH (ed.). John Wiley: Hoboken, NJ; 3-13.
163. Nielsen JB. 2005. Percutaneous penetration through slightly damaged skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 296(12): 560-567.
164. Nielsen JB, Nielsen F, Sorensen JA. 2007. Defense against dermal exposures is only skin deep: significantly increased penetration through slightly damaged skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 299(9): 423-431.
165. Nigg HN, Stamper JH. 1989. Biological monitoring for pesticide dose determination. In Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure: Measurement, Estimation, and Risk Reduction, Wang RGM, Franklin CA, Honeycutt RC, Reinert JC (eds). American Chemical Society: Washington, DC; 6-27.
166. Nikolovski J, Stamatas GN, Kollias N, Wiegand BC. 2008. Barrier function and water-holding and transport properties of infant stratum corneum are different from adult and continue to develop through the first year of life. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128(7): 1728-1736.
167. Noonan PK, Wester RC. 1980. Percutaneous absorption of nitroglycerin. J. Pharm. Sci. 69(3): 365-366.
168. OECD. 2000. Draft Guidance Document for the Conduct of Skin Absorption Studies. Series on Testing and Assessment No. 28. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Environment Health and Safety Publications: Paris.
169. OECD. 2004a. Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals. Skin Absorption: in Vitro Method, 13. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development: Paris.
170. OECD. 2004b. Guidance Document for the Conduct of Skin Absorption Studies. Series on Testing and Assessment No. 28. Environmental Health and Safety Publications, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development: Paris.
171. Oesch F, Fabian E, Oesch-Bartlomowicz B, Werner C, Landsiedel R. 2007. Drug-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of man, rat, and pig. Drug Metab. Rev. 39(4): 659-698.
172. Okah FA, Wickett RR, Pickens WL, Hoath SB. 1995. Surface electrical capacitance as a noninvasive bedside measure of epidermal barrier maturation in the newborn infant. Pediatrics 96(4 Pt 1): 688-692.
173. O'Malley M. 2003. Industrial hygiene and biomonitoring in the agricultural workplace. In Encyclopedia of Agrochemicals, Plimmer JR, Gammon DW, Ragsdale NN (eds). Joh Wiley: Hoboken, NJ.
174. Oriba HA, Bucks DA, Maibach HI. 1996. Percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone and testosterone on the vulva and forearm: effect of the menopause and site. Br. J. Dermatol. 134(2): 229-233.
175. Otberg N, Richter H, Schaefer H, Blume-Peytavi U, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2004. Variations of hair follicle size and distribution in different body sites. J. Invest. Dermatol. 122(1): 14-19.
176. Otberg N, Teichmann A, Rasuljev U, Sinkgraven R, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2007. Follicular penetration of topically applied caffeine via a shampoo formulation. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 20(4): 195-198.
177. Otberg N, Patzelt A, Rasulev U, Hagemeister T, Linscheid M, Sinkgraven R, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2008. The role of hair follicles in the percutaneous absorption of caffeine. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 65(4): 488-492.
178. Patel H, ten Berge W, Cronin MT. 2002. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) for the prediction of skin permeation of exogenous chemicals. Chemosphere 48(6): 603-613.
179. Plewig G. 1970. Regional differences of cell sizes in the human stratum corneum. II. Effects of sex and age. J. Invest. Dermatol. 54(1): 19-23.
180. Potts RO, Guy RH. 1992. Predicting skin permeability. Pharm. Res. 9(5): 663-639.
181. Potts RO, Guy RH. 1995. A predictive algorithm for skin permeability: the effects of molecular size and hydrogen bond activity. Pharm. Res. 12(11): 1628-1633.
182. Purdon CH, Azzi CG, Zhang J, Smith EW, Maibach HI. 2004. Penetration enhancement of transdermal delivery - current permutations and limitations. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Systems 21(2): 97-132.
183. Ramasastry P, Downing DT, Pochi PE, Strauss JS. 1970. Chemical composition of human skin surface lipids from birth to puberty. J. Invest. Dermatol. 54(2): 139-144.
184. Ramsey JD, Woollen BH, Auton TR, Scott RC. 1994. The predictive accuracy of in vitro measurements for the dermal absorption of a lipophilic penetrant (fluazifop-butyl) through rat and human skin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 23(2): 230-236.
185. Reifenrath WG, Hill JA, Robinson PB, McVey DL, Akers WA, Anjo DM, Maibach HI. 1980. Percutaneous absorption of carbon 14 labeled insect repellents in hairless dogs. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 4(1): 249-256.
186. Reifenrath WG, Chellquist EM, Shipwash EA, Jederberg WW, Krueger GG. 1984. Percutaneous penetration in the hairless dog, weanling pig and grafted athymic nude mouse: evaluation of models for predicting skin penetration in man. Br. J. Dermatol. 111(suppl. 27): 123-135.
187. Reifenrath WG, Hawkins GS, Kurtz MS. 1991. Percutaneous penetration and skin retention of topically applied compounds: an in vitro-in vivo study. J. Pharm. Sci. 80(6): 526-532.
188. Reinertson RP, Wheatley VR. 1959. Studies on the chemical composition of human epidermal lipids. J. Invest. Dermatol. 32(1): 49-59.
189. Ridout G, Hinz RS, Hostynek JJ, Reddy AK, Wiersema RJ, Hodson CD, Lorence CR, Guy RH. 1991. The effects of zwitterionic surfactants on skin barrier function. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 16(1): 41-50.
190. Riviere JE, Brooks JD. 2005. Predicting skin permeability from complex chemical mixtures. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 208(2): 99-110.
191. Riviere JE, Brooks JD. 2007. Prediction of dermal absorption from complex chemical mixtures: incorporation of vehicle effects and interactions into a QSPR framework. QSAR Environ. Res. 18(1-2): 31-44.
192. Riviere JE, Baynes RE, Brooks JD, Yeatts JL, Monteiro-Riviere NA. 2003. Percutaneous absorption of topical N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET): effects of exposure variables and coadministered toxicants. J. Toxicol. Environ Health A 66(2): 133-151.
193. Roberts MS, Harlock E. 1978. Effect of repeated skin application on percutaneous absorption of salicylic acid. J. Pharm. Sci. 67(12): 1685-1687.
194. Ross JH, Dong MH, Krieger RI. 2000. Conservatism in pesticide exposure assessment. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 31(1): 53-58.
195. Ross JH, Driver JH, Cochran RC, Thongsinthusak T, Krieger RI. 2001. Could pesticide toxicology studies be more relevant to occupational risk assessment? Annals Occup. Hyg. 45(suppl. 1): S5-S17.
196. Ross J, Chester G, Driver J, Lunchick C, Holden L, Rosenheck L, Barnekow D. 2008. Comparative evaluation of absorbed dose estimates derived from passive dosimetry measurements to those derived from biological monitoring: validation of exposure monitoring methodologies. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 18(2): 211-230.
197. Rougier A, Dupuis D, Lotte C, Roguet R, Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1986. Regional variation in percutaneous absorption in man: measurement by the stripping method. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 278(6): 465-469.
198. Rougier A, Dupuis D, Lotte C, Roguet R, Schaefer H. 1983. In vivo correlation between stratum corneum reservoir function and percutaneous absorption. J. Invest. Dermatol. 81(3): 275-278.
199. Rougier A, Lotte C, Maibach HI. 1987a. In vivo percutaneous penetration of some organic compounds related to anatomic site in humans: predictive assessment by the stripping method. J. Pharm. Sci. 76(6): 451-454.
200. Rougier A, Lotte C, Maibach HI. 1987b. The hairless rat: a relevant animal model to predict in vivo percutaneous absorption in humans? J. Invest. Dermatol. 88(5): 577-581.
201. Rutter N. 1996. The immature skin. Eur. J. Pediatr. 155(suppl. 2): S18-20.
202. Rutter N. 2000. The dermis. Semin Neonatol 5(4): 297-302.
203. Ryatt KS, Mobayen M, Stevenson JM, Maibach HI, Guy RH. 1988. Methodology to measure the transient effect of occlusion on skin penetration and stratum corneum hydration in vivo. Br. J. Dermatol. 119(3): 307-312.
204. Sato K, Sugibayashi K, Morimoto Y. 1991. Species differences in percutaneous absorption of nicorandil. J. Pharm. Sci. 80(2): 104-107.
205. Scheuplein RJ. 1965. Mechanism of percutaneous adsorption. I. Routes of penetration and the influence of solubility. J. Invest. Dermatol. 45(5): 334-346.
206. Scheuplein RJ, Blank IH. 1971. Permeability of the skin. Physiological Rev. 51(4): 702-747.
207. Scheuplein RJ, Blank IH. 1973. Mechanism of percutaneous absorption. IV. Penetration of nonelectrolytes (alcohols) from aqueous solutions and from pure liquids. J. Invest. Dermatol. 60(5): 286-296.
208. Scheuplein RJ, Ross LW. 1974. Mechanism of percutaneous absorption. V. Percutaneous absorption of solvent deposited solids. J. Invest. Dermatol. 62(4): 353-360.
209. Scheuplein RJ, Blank IH, Brauner GJ, MacFarlane DJ. 1969. Percutaneous absorption of steroids. J. Invest. Dermatol. 52(1): 63-70.
210. Scott RC. 1989. Percutaneous absorption: in vitro technique as an alternative to in vivo assessments. In Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure: Measurement, Estimation, and Risk Reduction, Wang RGM, Franklin CA, Honeycutt RC, Reinert JC (eds). American Chemical Society: Washington, DC; 158-168.
211. Scott RC, Ramsey JD. 1987. Comparison of the in vivo and in vitro percutaneous absorption of a lipophilic molecule (cypermethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide). J. Invest. Dermatol. 89(2): 142-146.
212. Scott RC, Walker M, Dugard PH. 1986. A comparison of the in vitro permeability properties of human and some laboratory animal skins. Int. J. Cosmetic Sci. 8(4): 189-194.
213. Seko N, Bando H, Lim CW, Yamashita F, Hashida M. 1999. Theoretical analysis of the effect of cutaneous metabolism on skin permeation of parabens based on a two-layer skin diffusion/metabolism model. Biological Pharm. Bull. 22(3): 281-287.
214. Selim S, Hartnagel RE, Jr., Osimitz TG, Gabriel KL, Schoenig GP. 1995. Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide following dermal application to human volunteers. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 25(1): 95-100.
215. Shah PV, Guthrie FE. 1983. Percutaneous penetration of three insecticides in rats: a comparison of two methods for in vivo determination. J. Invest. Dermatol. 80(4): 291-293.
216. Shah PV, Fisher HL, Sumler MR, Monroe RJ, ChernoffN, Hall LL. 1987a. Comparison of the penetration of 14 pesticides through the skin of young and adult rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 21(3): 353-366.
217. Shah PV, Fisher HL, Month NJ, Sumler MR, Hall LL. 1987b. Dermal penetration of carbofuran in young and adult Fischer 344 rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 22(2): 207-223.
218. Shah PV, Fisher HL, Sumler MR, Hall LL. 1989. Dermal Absorption and Pharmacokinetics of Pesticides in Rats. In Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure: Measurement, Estimation, and Risk Reduction, Wang RGM, Franklin CA, Honeycutt RC, Reinert JC (eds). American Chemical Society: Washington, DC; 169-187.
219. Shomaker TS, Zhang J, Ashburn MA. 2000. Assessing the impact of heat on the systemic delivery of fentanyl through the transdermal fentanyl delivery system. Pain Med. (Malden, MA) 1(3): 225-230.
220. Shomaker TS, Zhang J, Ashburn MA. 2001. A pilot study assessing the impact of heat on the transdermal delivery of testosterone. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 41(6): 677-682.
221. Simon GA, Maibach HI. 1998. Relevance of hairless mouse as an experimental model of percutaneous penetration in man. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 11(2): 80-86.
222. Simon GA, Maibach HI. 2000. The pig as an experimental animal model of percutaneous permeation in man: qualitative and quantitative observations - an overview. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 13(5): 229-234.
223. Singh S, Zhao K, Singh J. 2002. In vitro permeability and binding of hydrocarbons in pig ear and human abdominal skin. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 25(1): 83-92.
224. Smith LH, Holland JM. 1981. Interaction between benzo[a]pyrene and mouse skin in organ culture. Toxicology 21(1): 47-57.
225. Smith EW, Maibach HI (eds). 2006. Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers, 2nd edn. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL.
226. Smith WP, Christensen MS, Nacht S, Gans EH. 1982. Effect of lipids on the aggregation and permeability of human stratum corneum. J. Invest. Dermatol. 78(1): 7-11.
227. Snodgrass HL. 1992. Permethrin transfer from treated cloth to the skin surface: potential for exposure in humans. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 35(2): 91-105.
228. Solomon AE, Lowe NJ. 1979. Percutaneous absorption in experimental epidermal disease. Br. J. Dermatol. 100(6): 717-722.
229. Spencer TS, Hill JA, Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1979. Evaporation of diethyltoluamide from human skin in vivo and in vitro. J. Invest. Dermatol. 72(6): 317-319.
230. Stewart ME, Downing DT. 1985. Measurement of sebum secretion rates in young children. J. Invest. Dermatol. 84(1): 59-61.
231. Stewart ME, Steele WA, Downing DT. 1989. Changes in the relative amounts of endogenous and exogenous fatty acids in sebaceous lipids during early adolescence. J. Invest. Dermatol. 92(3): 371-378.
232. Sweeney TM, Downing DT. 1970. The role of lipids in the epidermal barrier to water diffusion. J. Invest. Dermatol. 55(2): 135-140.
233. Szabo G, Gerald AB, Pathak MA, Fitzpatrick TB. 1969. Racial differences in the fate of melanosomes in human epidermis. Nature 222(5198): 1081-1082.
234. Tata S, Weiner N, Flynn G. 1994. Relative influence of ethanol and propylene glycol cosolvents on deposition of minoxidil into the skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 83(10): 1508-1510.
235. Taylor LJ, Lee RS, Long M, Rawlings AV, Tubek J, Whitehead L, Moss GP. 2002. Effect of occlusion on the percutaneous penetration of linoleic acid and glycerol. Int. J. Pharm. 249(1-2): 157-164.
236. Thongsinthusak T, Haskell D, Ross JH. 1999a. Dermal Absorption of Propargite, Bensulfuron-Methyl, Captan, and Maneb in Rats. California Department of Pesticide Regulation: Sacramento, CA.
237. Thongsinthusak T, Ross JH, Dong MH. 1999b. Significance of Dermal Dose Levels in Dermal Absorption Studies of Pesticides. California Department of Pesticide Regulation: Sacramento, CA.
238. Toll R, Jacobi U, Richter H, Lademann J, Schaefer H, Blume-Peytavi U. 2004. Penetration profile of microspheres in follicular targeting of terminal hair follicles. J. Invest. Dermatol. 123(1): 168-176.
239. Traynor MJ, Wilkinson SC, Williams FM. 2007. The influence of water mixtures on the dermal absorption of glycol ethers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 218(2): 128-134.
240. Treffel P, Muret P, Muret-D'Aniello P, Coumes-Marquet S, Agache P. 1992. Effect of occlusion on in vitro percutaneous absorption of two compounds with different physicochemical properties. Skin Pharmacol. 5(2): 108-113.
241. Tregear RT. 1966. Physical Properties of the Skin. Academic Press: New York.
242. Tsai JC, Sheu HM, Hung PL, Cheng CL. 2001. Effect of barrier disruption by acetone treatment on the permeability of compounds with various lipophilicities: implications for the permeability of compromised skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 90(9): 1242-1254.
243. Turpeinen M. 1988. Influence of age and severity of dermatitis on the percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone in children. Br. J. Dermatol. 118(4): 517-522.
244. US EPA. 1992. Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles and Applications. Interim Report. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment: Washington, DC.
245. US EPA. 1998a. Health Effects Test Guidelines: OPPTS 870.7485: Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
246. US EPA. 1998b. Health Effects Test Guidelines: OPPTS 870.7600: Dermal Penetration. Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances: Washington, DC.
247. US EPA. 1998c. Occupational and Residential Exposure Test Guidelines 875.2600: Biological Monitoring. US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
248. US EPA. 2004a. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Voume 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment). Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
249. US EPA. 2004b. Proposed Test Rule for In Vitro Dermal Absorption Rate Testing of Certain Chemicals of Interest to Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Federal Register, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxic Substances US EPA: Washington, DC.
250. van der Merwe D, Riviere JE. 2006. Cluster analysis of the dermal permeability and stratum corneum/solvent partitioning of ten chemicals in twenty-four chemical mixtures in porcine skin. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 19(4): 198-206.
251. van de Sandt JJ, Meuling WJ, Elliott GR, Cnubben NH, Hakkert BC. 2000. Comparative in vitro-in vivo percutaneous absorption of the pesticide propoxur. Toxicol. Sci. 58(1): 15-22.
252. van de Sandt JJ, van Burgsteden JA, Cage S, Carmichael PL, Dick I, Kenyon S, Korinth G, Larese F, Limasset JC, Maas WJ. et al. 2004. In vitro predictions of skin absorption of caffeine, testosterone, and benzoic acid: a multi-centre comparison study. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 39(3): 271-281.
253. Van Duzee BF. 1975. Thermal analysis of human stratum corneum. J. Invest. Dermatol. 65(4): 404-408.
254. van Ravenzwaay B, Leibold E. 2004. The significance of in vitro rat skin absorption studies to human risk assessment. Toxicol. in Vitro 18(2): 219-225.
255. Versar. 1995. The Pesticide Handlers Exposure Database (PHED), Version 1.1. Versar Inc.
256. Wedig JH, Maibach HI. 1981. Percutaneous penetration of dipyrithione in man: effect of skin color (race). J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 5(4): 433-438.
257. Wedig JH, Feldmann RJ, Maibach HI. 1977. Percutaneous penetration of the magnesium sulfate adduct of dipyrithione in man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 41(1): 1-6.
258. Weigand DA, Haygood C, Gaylor JR. 1974. Cell layers and density of Negro and Caucasian stratum corneum. J. Invest. Dermatol. 62(6): 563-568.
259. Wesley NO, Maibach HI. 2003. Racial (ethnic) differences in skin properties: the objective data. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 4(12): 843-860.
260. West DP, Halket JM, Harvey DR, Hadgraft J, Solomon LM, Harper JI. 1987. Percutaneous absorption in preterm infants. Pediatr. Dermatol. 4(3): 234-237.
261. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1975. Percutaneous absorption in the rhesus monkey compared with man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 32(2): 394-398.
262. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1976. Relationship of topical dose and percutaneous absorption in rhesus monkey and man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 67(4): 518-520.
263. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1983. Cutaneous pharmacokinetics: 10 steps to percutaneous absorption. Drug Metab. Rev. 14(2): 169-205.
264. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1985a. In vivo percutaneous absorption and decontamination of pesticides in humans. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 16(1): 25-37.
265. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1985b. Dermatopharmacokinetics in clinical dermatology. In Percutaneous Absorption, Bronaugh R, Maibach H (eds). Marcel Dekker: New York; 125-132.
266. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1985c. In vivo animal models for percutaneous absorption. In Percutaneous Absorption, Bronaugh R, Maibach H (eds). Marcel Dekker: New York; 251-266.
267. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1991. Individual and regional variation with in vitro percutaneous absorption. In In Vitro Percutaneous Absorption, Bronaugh R, Maibach H (eds). CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL; 25-30.
268. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1996a. Percutaneous absorption of hazardous substances from soil and water. In Dermatotoxicology, 5th edn, Marzulli FN, Maibach HI (eds). Taylor & Francis: Washington, DC; 325-335.
269. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 1996b. Percutaneous absorption: short-term exposure, lag time, multiple exposures, model variations, and absorption from clothing. In Dermatotoxicology, Marzulli FN, Maibach HI (eds). Taylor & Francis: Washington, DC; 35-48.
270. Wester RC, Maibach HI. 2000. Understanding percutaneous absorption for occupational health and safety. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 6(2): 86-92.
271. Wester RC, Noonan PK, Cole MP, Maibach HI. 1977a. Percutaneous absorption of testosterone in the newborn rhesus monkey: comparison to the adult. Pediatr. Res. 11(6): 737-739.
272. Wester RC, Noonan PK, Maibach HI. 1977b. Frequency of application on percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone. Arch. Dermatol. 113(5): 620-622.
273. Wester RC, Noonan PK, Maibach HI. 1980a. Percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone increases with long-term administration. In vivo studies in the rhesus monkey. Arch. Dermatol. 116(2): 186-188.
274. Wester RC, Noonan PK, Maibach HI. 1980b. Variations in percutaneous absorption of testosterone in the rhesus monkey due to anatomic site of application and frequency of application. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 267(3): 229-235.
275. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Bucks DA, Guy RH. 1983. Malathion percutaneous absorption after repeated administration to man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 68(1): 116-119.
276. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Bucks DA, Aufrere MB. 1984. In vivo percutaneous absorption of paraquat from hand, leg, and forearm of humans. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 14(5-6): 759-762.
277. 14C] benzo[a]pyrene from soil. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 15(3): 510-516.
278. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Sedik L, Melendres J, DiZio S, Wade M. 1992. In vitro percutaneous absorption of cadmium from water and soil into human skin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 19(1): 1-5.
279. Wester RC, Maibach HI, Sedik L, Melendres J, Wade M. 1993a. Percutaneous absorption of PCBs from soil: in vivo rhesus monkey, in vitro human skin, and binding to powdered human stratum corneum. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 39(3): 375-382.
280. Wester RC, Sedik L, Melendres J, Logan F, Maibach HI, Russell I. 1993b. Percutaneous absorption of diazinon in humans. Food Chem. Toxicol. 31(8): 569-572.
281. Wester RC, Bucks DA, Maibach HI. 1994. Human in vivo percutaneous absorption of pyrethrin and piperonyl butoxide. Food Chem. Toxicol. 32(1): 51-53.
282. Wester RC, Quan D, Maibach HI. 1996. In vitro percutaneous absorption of model compounds glyphosate and malathion from cotton fabric into and through human skin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 34(8): 731-735.
283. Wickrema Sinha AJ, Shaw SR, Weber DJ. 1978. Percutaneous absorption and excretion of tritium-labeled diflorasone diacetate, a new topical corticosteroid in the rat, monkey and man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 71(6): 372-377.
284. Wilkes MF, Woollen BH, Marsh JR, Batten PL, Chester G. 1993. Biological monitoring for pesticide exposure - the role of human volunteer studies. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 65(suppl. 1): S189-192.
285. Williams AC, Barry BW. 2004. Penetration enhancers. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 56(5): 603-618.
286. Williams RL, Bernard CE, Krieger RI. 2003. Human exposure to indoor residential cyfluthrin residues during a structured activity program. J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 13(2): 112-119.
287. Williams RL, Aston LS, Krieger RI. 2004. Perspiration increased human pesticide absorption following surface contact during an indoor scripted activity program. J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 14(2): 129-136.
288. Williams RL, Reifenrath WG, Krieger RI. 2005. Artificial sweat enhances dermal transfer of chlorpyrifos from treated nylon carpet fibers. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part 40(4): 535-543.
289. Wilson DR, Maibach HI. 1980. Transepidermal water loss in vivo. Premature and term infants. Biol. Neonate 37(3-4): 180-185.
290. Wilson D, Berardesca E, Maibach HI. 1988. In vitro transepidermal water loss: differences between black and white human skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 119(5): 647-652.
291. Wolfe HR. 1976. Field exposure to airborne pesticides. In Air Pollution from Pesticides and Agricultural Processes, Lee RE (ed.). CRC Press: Cleveland, OH; 137-158.
292. Wolfram LJ, Maibach HI. 1985. Percutaneous penetration of hair dyes. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 277(3): 235-241.
293. Woollen BH, Marsh JR, Laird WJ, Lesser JE. 1992. The metabolism of cypermethrin in man: differences in urinary metabolite profiles following oral and dermal administration. Xenobiotica; Fate Foreign Compounds Biol. Systems 22(8): 983-991.
294. Yamamoto A, Serizawa S, Ito M, Sato Y. 1987. Effect of aging on sebaceous gland activity and on the fatty acid composition of wax esters. J. Invest. Dermatol. 89(5): 507-512.
295. Ya-Xian Z, Suetake T, Tagami H. 1999. Number of cell layers of the stratum corneum in normal skin - relationship to the anatomical location on the body, age, sex and physical parameters. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 291(10): 555-559.
296. Yosipovitch G, Maayan-Metzger A, Merlob P, Sirota L. 2000. Skin barrier properties in different body areas in neonates. Pediatrics 106(1 Pt 1): 105-108.
297. Zackheim HS, Feldmann RJ, Lindsay C, Maibach HI. 1977. Percutaneous absorption of 1,3-bis (2-chloroethyl)-I-nitrosourea (BCNU, carmustine) in mycosis fungoides. Br. J. Dermatol. 97(1): 65-67.
298. Zendzian RP. 1994a. Subdivision F: Dermal Absorption of Pesticides. Office of Pesticide Programs, US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
299. Zendzian RP. 1994b. Dermal Absorption of Pesticides. Pesticide Assessment Guidelines, Subdivision F, Hazard Evaluation, Human and Domestic Animals, Series 85-3. US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
300. Zendzian RP. 2000. Dermal absorption of pesticides in the rat. Aihaj 61(4): 473-483.
301. Zendzian RP. 2003. Pesticide residue on/in the washed skin and its potential contribution to dermal toxicity. J. Appl. Toxicol. 23(2): 121-136.
302. Zendzian RP, Dellarco M. 2003. Validating in vitro dermal absorption studies: an introductory case study. In Alternative Toxicological Methods, Salem H, Katz SA (eds). CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL.
303. Zhai H, Maibach HI. 2001. Effects of skin occlusion on percutaneous absorption: an overview. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 14(1): 1-10.