Epidemiological methods: About time

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 29-45

  Kraemer, Helena Chmura ^a,b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Effect sizes; Mediators; Moderators; Risk factors; Statistical and clinical significance

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COHORT ANALYSIS; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DECISION MAKING; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HEART DISEASE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MENTAL DISEASE; METHODOLOGY; NEOPLASM; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTOR; SAMPLING;

EID: 75449116709     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7010029     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. Last, J.M. A Dictionary of Epidemiology; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1995; p. 35.
2. Ioannidis, J.P.A. Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Med. 2005, 2, 696-791.
3. Ioannidis, J.P.A. Contradicted and initially stronger effects in highly cited clinical research. J. Am. Med. Assn. 2005, 294, 218-228.
4. von Elm, R.; Egger, M. The scandal of poor epidemiological research. Brit. Med. J. 2004, 329, 868-869.
5. Martyn, C. What is the point of epidemiology? Pract. Neurol. 2004, 4, 192-193.
6. Kraemer, H.C.; Kazdin, A.E.; Offord, D.R.; Kessler, R.C.; Jensen, P.S.; Kupfer, D.J. Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 1997, 54, 337-343.
7. Singer, J.D.; Willett, J.B. It's about time: using discrete-time survival analysis to study duration and the timing of events. J. Educ. Stat. 1993, 18, 155-195.
8. Kaplan, E.L.; Meier, P. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. J. Am. Stat. Assn. 1958, 53, 457-481, 562-563.
9. Stampfer, M.J.; Colditz, G.A.; Willett, W.C.; Manson, J.E.; Rosner, B.; Speizer, F.E.; Hennekens, C.H. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease. Ten-year follow-up from the nurses' health study. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 325, 756-762.
10. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assn. 2002, 288, 321-333.
11. Kraemer, H.C. Events per person-time (incidence rate): a misleading statistic? Stat.Med. 2009, 29, 1028-1039.
12. Stampfer, M.J.; Willett, W.C.; Colditz, G.A.; Rosner, B.; Speizer, F.E.; Hennekens, C.H. A prospective study of postmenopausal estrogen therapy and coronary heart disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985, 313, 1044-1049.
13. Kline, R.B. Beyond Significance Testing: Reforming Data Analysis Methods in Behavioral Research; American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, WA, USA, 2005.
14. Nickerson, R.S. Null hypothesis significance testing: a review of an old and continuing controversy. Psychol. Methods 2000, 5, 241-301.
15. Wilkinson, L. The task force on statistical inference statistical methods in psychology journals: guidelines and explanations. Am. Psychol. 1999, 54, 594-604.
16. Thompson, B. Journal editorial policies regarding statistical significance tests: heat is to fire as p is to importance. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 1999, 11, 157-169.
17. Krantz, D.H. The null hypothesis testing controversy in psychology. J. Am. Stat. Assn. 1999, 44, 1372-1381.
18. Shrout, P.E. Should significance tests be banned? Introduction to a special section exploring the pros and cons. Psychol. Sci. 1997, 8, 1-2.
19. Hunter, J.E. Needed: A ban on the significance test. Psychol. Sci. 1997, 8, 3-7.
20. Cohen, J. The Earth is Round (p < 0.05). Am. Psychol. 1995, 49, 997-1003.
21. Dar, R.; Serlin, R.C.; Omer, H. Misuse of statistical tests in three decades of psychotherapy research. J. Consult. Clin. Res. 1994, 62, 75-82.
22. Meehl, P.E. Theoretical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl, Sir Ronald, and the slow progress of soft psychology. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1978, 46, 806-834.
23. Jones, L.V.; Tukey, J.W. A sensible formulation of the significance test. Psychol. Methods 2000, 5, 411-414.
24. Newcombe, R.G. Confidence intervals for an effect size measure based on the Mann-Whitney statistic. Part 1: General issues and tail area based methods. Stat. Med. 2006, 25, 543-557.
25. Kraemer, H.C.; Kupfer, D.J. Size of treatment effects and their importance to clinical research and practice. Biol. Psychiatr. 2006, 59, 990-996.
26. Acion, L.; Peterson, J.J.; Temple, S.; Arndt, S. Probabilistic index: an intuitive non-parametric approach to measuring the size of treatment effects. Stat. Med. 2006, 25, 591-602.
27. Grissom, R.J.; Kim, J.J. Review of assumptions and problems in the appropriate conceptualization of effect size. Psychol. Methods 2001, 6, 135-146.
28. Grissom, R.J. Probability of the superior outcome of one treatment over another. J. App. Psychol. 1994, 79, 314-316.
29. McGraw, K.O.; Wong, S.P. A common language effect size statistic. Psychol. Bull. 1992, 111, 361-365.
30. Hsu, L.M. Biases of success rate differences shown in binomial effect size displays. Psychol. Bull. 2004, 9, 183-197.
31. Wen, L.; Badgett, R.; Cornell, J. Number needed to treat: a descriptor for weighing therapeutic options. Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm. 2005, 62, 2031-2036.
32. Bogarty, P.; Brophy, J. Numbers needed to treat (needlessly?). The Lancet 2005, 365, 1307-1308.
33. Altman, D.G.; Schulz, K.F.; Hoher, D.; Egger, M.; Davidoff, F.; Elbourne, D.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Lang, T.; Consort-Group. The revised CONSORT statement for reporting randomized trials: explanation and elaboration. Ann. Intern. Med. 2001, 134, 663-694.
34. Newcombe, R.G. Confidence intervals for the number needed to treat-absolute risk reduction is less likely to be misunderstood. Bri. Med. J. 1999, 318, 1765.
35. Lesaffre, E.; Pledger, G. A note on the number needed to treat. Contr. Clin. Trial. 1999, 20, 439-447.
36. Cook, R.J.; Sackett, D.L. The number needed to treat: a clinically useful measure of treatment effect. Brit. Med. J. 1995, 310, 452-454.
37. Altman, D.G.; Andersen, K. Calculating the number needed to treat for trials where the outcome is time to an event. Brit. Med. J. 1999, 319, 1492-1495.
38. Altman, D.G. Confidence intervals for the number needed to treat. Brit. Med. J. 1998, 317, 1309-1312.
39. Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1977.
40. Kraemer, H.C. Correlation coefficients in medical research: from product moment correlation to the odds ratio. Stat. Methods Med. Res. 2007, 15, 525-545.
41. Newcombe, R.G. A deficiency of the odds ratio as a measure of effect size. Stat.Med. 2006, 25, 4235-4240.
42. Kraemer, H.C. Reconsidering the odds ratio as a measure of 2X2 Association in a population. Stat. Med. 2004, 23, 257-270.
43. Kraemer, H.C.; Kazdin, A.E.; Offord, D.R.; Kessler, R.C.; Jensen, P.S.; Kupfer, D.J. Measuring the potency of a risk factor for clinical or policy significance. Psychol. Methods 1999, 4, 257-271.
44. Sackett, D.L. Down with odds ratios! Evid. Based Med. 1996, 1, 164-166.
45. Kraemer, H.C.; Stice, E.; Kazdin, A.; Kupfer, D. How do risk factors work together to produce an outcome? Mediators, moderators, independent, overlapping and proxy risk factors. Am. J. Psychiatr. 2001, 158, 848-856.
46. Kraemer, H.C.; Wilson, G.T.; Fairburn, C.G.; Agras, W.S. Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 2002, 59, 877-883.
47. Kraemer, H.C.; Frank, E.; Kupfer, D.J. Moderators of treatment outcomes: clinical, research, and policy importance. J.Am. Med. Assn. 2006, 296, 1-4.
48. Kraemer, H.C.; Kiernan, M.; Essex, M.J.; Kupfer, D.J. How and why criteria defining moderators and mediators differ between the Baron & Kenny and MacArthur approaches. Health Psychol. 2008, 27, S101-S108.
49. Kraemer, H.C. Toward non-parametric and clinically meaningful moderators and mediators. Stat. Med. 2008, 27, 1679-1692.
50. Jain, K.K. Personalized medicine. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 2002, 4, 548-558.
51. Abrahams, E.; Ginsburg, G.S.; Silver, M. The personalized medicine coalition: goal and strategies. A. J. Pharmacogenomics 2005, 5, 345-355.
52. Lesko, L.J. Personalized medicine: elusive dream or imminent reality? Cl. Pharmacol. Ther. 2007, 81, 807-815.
53. Richmond, T.D. The current status and future potential of personalized diagnostics: streamlining a customized process. Biotechnol. Ann. Rev. 2008, 14, 411-422.
54. The MTA Cooperative Group. Moderators and mediators of treatment response for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1999, 56, 1088-1096.
55. Kraemer, H.C.; Wilson, G.T.; Fairburn, C.G.; Agras W.S. Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 2002, 59, 877-883.
56. Owens, E.G.; Hinshaw, S.P.; Kraemer, H.C.; Arnold, L.E.; Abikoff, H.B.; Cantwell, D.P.; Conners, C.K.; Elliot, G.; Greenhill, L.L.; Hechtman, L.; Hoza, B.; Jensen, P.S.; March, J.S.; Newcorn, J.H.; Pelham, W.E.; Richters, J.E.; Schiller, E.P.; Severe, J.G.; Swanson, J.M.; Vereen, D.; Vitiello, B.; Wells K.C.; Wigal, T. Moderators of treatment response in the MTA. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2003, 71, 540-552.
57. Caspi, A.; Sugden, K.; Moffitt, T.E.; Taylor, A.; Craig, I.W.; Harrington, H.; McClay, J.; Mill, J.; Martin, J.; Braithwaite, A.; Poulton, R. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 2003, 301, 386-389.
58. Boyce, W.T.; Essex, M.J.; Alkon, A.; Goldsmith, H.H.; Kraemer, H.C.; Kupfer D.J. Early father involvement moderates biobehavioral susceptibility to mental health problems in middle childhood. J. Am. Acad. Child Adol. Psychiatr. 2006, 45, 1510-1520.
59. Essex, M.J.; Kraemer, H.C.; Armstrong, J.M.; Boyce, W.T.; Goldsmith, H.H.; Klein, M.H.; Woodward, H.; Kupfer, D.J. Exploring risk factors for the emergence of children's mental health problems. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 2006, 63, 1246-1256.
60. Risch, N.; Herrell, R.; Lehner, T.; Lian, K.-Y.; Eaves, L.; Hoh, J.; Griem, A.; Kovacs, M.; Ott, J.; Merikangas, K.R. Interactions between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: a Meta-analysis. J. Am. Med. Assn. 2009, 301, 2462-2471.