'Roots, remedies and properties of stones': The Essenes, Qumran and Dead Sea pharmacology

Journal of Jewish Studies

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 226-244

  Taylor, Joan E ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WAIKATO   (New Zealand)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 73249142313     PISSN: 00222097     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.18647/2880/JJS-2009     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. The primary purpose of Qumran has been identified as a commercial way-station for the trade over the Dead Sea (Lena Cansdale, Qumran and the Essenes: A Re-Evaluation of the Evidence, J. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen, 1997
2. Alan D. Crown and Lena Cansdale, 'Qumran: Was it an Essene Settlement?' Biblical Archaeology Review 20 (1994), pp. 24-35, 73-74, 76-78)
3. an opobalsam perfume manufacturing centre (Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte, The Archaeology of Khirbet Qumran', in Michael Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, Dennis Pardee, eds, Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects, New York, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 722, 1994, pp. 1-38
4. and Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte, id., 'Poursuite des travaux de publication du matériel archéologique de Khirbet Qumrân: Les lampes en terre cuite', in Z. J. Kapera, ed., Mogilany 1995: Papers on the Dead Sea Scrolls Offered in Memory of Aleksy Klawek, Qumranica Mogilanensia 15; Enigma Press, Cracow, 1998, pp. 87-104
5. Pauline Donceel-Voûte, 'Les ruines de Qumrân réinterprétées', Archéologia 298 (1994), pp. 24-35
6. Pauline Donceel-Voûte, ead., Traces of Fragrance along the Dead Sea', Res Orientales 11 (1998), pp. 93-124)
7. a villa with industries including perfume manufacture (Yizhar Hirschfeld, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, Mass., 2004
8. Yizhar Hirschfeld, id., 'Early Roman Manor Houses in Judea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran', JNES 57 (1998), pp. 161-89)
9. and a pottery-manufacturing centre (Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg, 'Back to Qumran: Ten Years of Excavation and Research, 1993-2004', in Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert and Jürgen Zangenberg, eds, Qumran, the Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates, Brill, Leiden / Boston, 2006, pp. 55-113
10. Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg, id., The Qumran Excavations 1993-2004: Preliminary Report, Judea and Samaria Publications 6; Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007)
11. I translate Josephus' áßñåóé ò (War 2: 137; Ant. 13: 171) as 'legal school' rather than as 'sect'. With a basic meaning of 'choice' (Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott and H. Stuart Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th edn, Oxford: Clarendon, 1968, p. 42), apeais meant 'philosophical school' in contemporaneous usage, including that of Philo
12. see David Runia, 'Philo of Alexandria and the Greek Hairesis Model', Vigiliae Christianae 53 (1999), pp. 117-47, esp. 118-24. However, Judaism was of course founded on legal exegesis of Torah and other sacred writings, with practical applications throughout the land in courts of law
13. Note that in the face of a variety of citation practices in regard to Pliny, references here are given in line with the Mayhoff Latin edition's broader divisions, with paragraph divisions: C. Plini Secundi, Naturalis Historiae, ed. Charles Mayhoff (B. G. Tübner, Stuttgart, 1967)
14. D. Stacey, 'Seasonal Industries at Qumran', Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 26 (2008), pp. 7-29
15. Jürgen Zangenberg, 'Das Tote Meer in neutestamentlicher Zeit', in E. A. Knauf, U. Hübner and R. Wenning (eds), Nach Petra und ins Königreich der Nabatäer. Festschrift Manfred Lindner (Bonner Biblische Beoiträge 118; Beltz Athenäum, Bodenheim, 1998), pp. 49-59
16. Jürgen Zangenberg, id., 'Wildnis unter Palmen? Khirbet Qumran in regionalen Kontext des Toten Meers', in Bernard Mayer (ed.), Jericho und Qumran: Neues zum Umfeld der Bibel (Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, 2000), pp. 129-63
17. Jürgen Zangenberg, id., 'Opening Up our View: Khirbet Qumran in Regional Perspective', in Douglas R. Edwards (ed.), Religion and Society in Roman Palestine: Old Questions, New Approaches (Routledge, New York / London, 2004), pp. 170-87
18. Three stone anchors from the Roman period and two wooden anchors dating to the late Iron Age and the early Roman period have been found near Ein Gedi, see Gideon Hadas, 'Stone Anchors from the Dead Sea', Atiqot 21 (1992), pp. 55-57
19. Gideon Hadas, Nili Liphschitz and Georges Bonani, 'Two Ancient Wooden Anchors from Ein Gedi, on the Dead Sea, Israel', International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 34 (2005), pp. 299-307
20. Note, however, that no trade route as such passed through Qumran, see Shimon Gibson and Joan E. Taylor, 'Roads and Passes Around Qumran', PEQ 140 (2008), pp. 225-27
21. Having started to investigate this subject, I discovered that the proposition that the Dead Sea healing resources were used by the Essenes has already been presented in a preliminary way by Gloria A. Moss, in 'Religion and Medicine: The Case of Qumran', Faith and Freedom 51, no. 146 (1998), pp. 44-61
22. Gloria A. Moss, ead., 'Historical Perspectives on Health Medicine 2000 Years Ago: The Case of Qumran and other Biblical Sites', The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 120 (2000), pp. 255-61. I am very grateful to Gloria Moss for discussing her ideas with me
23. Philo and Porphyry use 'óóáßïò while Josephus uses both óóáßïò(Ant. 13:311; 15: 371; 17: 346; War 1: 78; 2: 113, 167; 3: 11) áçÜ óóçíüò (Ant. 13: 171-72; 298; 15: 372; 18: 18-22; War 2: 119, 158, 160; 5: 145;Life 10-12;) though the latter may be a confusion with the designation of the priests of Artemis of Ephesus, who had to observe strict rules of purity for a year (cf. Pausanias 8: 13: 1), see the discussion by John Kampen, 'A Reconsideration of the Name "Essene" in Greco-Jewish Literature in Light of Recent Perceptions', HUCA 57 (1986), pp. 61-81
24. = John Kampen, id., The Hasideans and the Origin of Pharisaism: A Study in 1 and 2 Maccabees (SBL Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series 24; Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1988), chapter 4
25. and John Kampen, id., The Cult of Artemis and the Essenes in Syro-Palestine', DSD 10 (2003), pp. 205-20
26. For further discussion on the name of the Essenes see Joseph B. Lightfoot, 'On Some Points Connected with the Essenes', in id., The Epistles of St. Paul iii. The First Roman Captivity. 2. The Epistle to the Colossians, 3. Epistle to Philemon (Macmillan, London, 1875), pp. 114-79, at 116-17
27. Marcus Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi and the Midrashic Literature (Title Publishing, New York, 1943), p. 93
28. Geza Vermes, 'The Etymology of "Essenes"', Revue de Qumran 2 (1960), pp. 427-44
29. Jastrow, Dictionary (as in n. 8), pp. 89, 93
30. See Fred Rosner, 'Pharmacology and Dietetics in the Bible and Talmud', in Irene Jacob (ed.), The Healing Past: Pharmaceuticals in the Biblical and Rabbinic World (Brill, Leiden, 1993), pp. 1-26 at 6
31. See studies by Howard Clark Kee, 'Medicine and Healing', in The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 659-64
32. Bernard Palmer (ed.), Medicine and the Bible (Exeter; Paternoster Press, 1986)
33. David L. Freeman and Judith Z. Abrams, Illness and and Health in the Jewish Tradition: Writings from the Bible to Today (Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia, 1999)
34. Julius Preuss, Biblical and Talmudic Medicine, transl. by Fred Rosner of Biblischtalmudische Medizin (S. Karger, Berlin, 1911, repr. Ktav, Jerusalem, 1970) (Sanhedrin Press, New York, 1978)
35. Fred Rosner, Medicine in the Bible and the Talmud (Ktav, Jerusalem, 1995)
36. Larry Hogan, Healing in the Second Temple Period (Vandenhoeck, Göttingen, 1992), p. 3
37. See also Exod. 23: 25-26; Deut. 7: 13-15; 28: 1-68; 30: 15-20. For other explorations of healing in Ancient Israel and in Second Temple Judaism see the works cited in H. Friedenwald, 'The Bibliography of Ancient Hebrew Medicine', Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 23/3 (1935), pp. 124-57
38. Irena and Walter Jacob (eds), The Healing Past - Pharmaceuticals in the Biblical and Rabbinic World (Brill, Leiden / New York / Cologne, 1993)
39. Samuel S. Kottek, 'Hygiene and Healing among the Jews in the Post-Biblical Period: A Partial Reconstruction,' and 'Selected Elements of Talmudic Medical Terminology with Special Reference to Graeco-Latin Influences', Aufstieg und Niedergang in der römisichen Welt (Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996), 2.37.3, 2843-65 and 2912-32
40. Samuel S. Kottek and H. F. J. Horstmanshoff(eds), From Athens to Jerusalem: Medicine in Hellenized Jewish Lore and in early Christian Literature (Erasmus, Rotterdam, 2000)
41. S. T. Newmyer, Talmudic Medicine and Graeco-Roman Science. Cross-currents and Resistance', Aufstieg und Niedergang in der römisichen Welt (Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996), 2.37.3: 2895-2911
42. M. Waserman and Samuel S. Kottek, Health and Disease in the Holy Land: Studies in the History and Sociology of Medicine from Ancient Times to the Present (Edwin Mellen, New York / Lampeter, 1996)
43. The literature on this subject is exceedingly vast, but see for recent and significant studies: Howard Clark Kee, Medicine, Miracle and Magic in the New Testament (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986)
44. Steven L. Davies, Jesus the Healer Possession, Trance and the Origins of Christianity (SCM, London, 1995)
45. Harold Remus, Jesus as Healer (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997)
46. Graham H. Twelftree, Jesus the Exorcist: A Contribution to the Study of the Historical Jesus (J. C B. Mohr/ Paul Siebeck, Tübingen, 1993)
47. Todd Klutz, The Exorcism Stories in Luke-Acts: A Sociostylistic Reading (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 129; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004)
48. Menahem M. Brayer, 'Medical, Hygienic and Psychological Aspects of the Dead Sea Scrolls', Harofe Haivri: The Hebrew Medical Journal 37 (1964) 1, pp. 9-118 (Heb.); pp. 298-285 (Eng.); 2: pp. 125-135 (Heb.), pp. 272-261 (Eng.); 38 (1965) 1: pp. 156-169 (Heb.), pp. 254-248 (Eng.)
49. Menahem M. Brayer, id., 'Psychosomatics, Hermetic Medicine and Dream Interpretation in the Qumran Literature', JQR 60 (1969), pp. 112-27; 213-30
50. Samuel S. Kottek, The Essenes and Medicine', Clio Medica 18 (1983), pp. 81-99
51. Samuel S. Kottek, id., Medicine and Hygiene in the Works of Flavius Josephus (Brill, Leiden, 1994)
52. Samuel S. Kottek, id., 'Hygiene and Healing' (as in n.13)
53. Nigel Allan, 'The Physician in Ancient Israel: His Status and Function', Medical History 45 (2001), pp. 377-94
54. Kottek, 'Essenes and Medicine', p. 83 (as in n.16)
55. For arguments in favour of a site north of En Gedi, see E. M. Laperrousaz, '"Infra hos Engadda", notes à propos d'un article récent', Revue Biblique 69 (1962), pp. 369-80, who reads infra as 'downstream'
56. Roland de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls
57. rev. transl. by David Bourke of L'archéologie et les Manuscrits de la Mer Morte (British Academy, London, 1973) (The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy; Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1973), pp. 133-37
58. Geza Vermes and Martin Goodman (eds), The Essenes according to the Classical Sources (JSOT Press, Sheffield, 1989), p. 3, n. 19
59. Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, 1984) I, pp. 480-81
60. John J. Collins, 'Essenes', Anchor Bible Dictionary (as in n. 12) 2, pp. 619-26, at 620
61. Against this, arguing that Pliny refers to the Essenes as being further inland or west of En Gedi, see Jean-Paul Audet, 'Qumrân et la notice de Pline sur les Esséniens', Revue Biblique 68 (1961), pp. 346-87
62. Robert A. Kraft, 'Pliny on Essenes, Pliny on Jews', DSD 8 (2001), pp. 255-61, esp. 258
63. For a reading contra Audet, in agreement with Laperrousaz, see Christian Burchard, 'Pline et les Esséniens: à propos d'un article récent', Revue Biblique 69 (1962), pp. 533-69
64. For the suggestion that Pliny is unreliable see: Albert I. Baumgarten, 'Who Cares and Why Does it Matter? Qumran and the Essenes, Once Again!' DSD 11 (2004), pp. 174-90, at 177-78
65. and counter-argument by Magen Broshi, 'Essenes at Qumran? A Rejoinder to Albert Baumgarten', DSD 14 (2007), pp. 25-33, at 29
66. For this see Joan E. Taylor, 'On Pliny, the Essene Location and Kh. Qumran', DSD 16 (2009), pp. 129-49
67. Joan E. Taylor, 'Dio Chrysostom - according to Synesius - on the Essene Landscape', in Charlotte Hempel (ed.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Texts and Contexts (Brill, Leiden, forthcoming)
68. Vivian Nutton, 'The Chronology of Galen's Early Career', The Classical Quarterly 23 (1973), pp. 158-71, at 169
69. Joseph Walsh, 'Galen Visits the Dead Sea and the Copper Mines of Cyprus (166 A.D.)', Geographical Club of Philadelphia Bulletin 25 (1924), pp. 92-110
70. See Efraim Lev and Zohar Amar, Practical Materia Medica of the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean according to the Cairo Genizah (Brill, Boston / Leiden, 2008), pp. 349-52 for its uses in the medical texts of the Cairo Genizah
71. I mention here and in the following notes the Cairo Genizah texts as a repository of Judaic knowledge about medicines, in which the writings of both classical and Arabic scholars were preserved, among a great mass of unsourced documents (given that, so far, 1360 fragments of medical books have been identified in the Taylor-Schechter collection). In their monumental study, Lev and Amar provide documentation of the correspondence between the medical lore of the texts and relevant classical, rabbinic, Arabic and Jewish Byzantine to Medieval sources. For general discussions about the importance of opobalsam in the region and its uses see: Zohar Amar, 'The Balsam Wood in the Temple Incense', Tehumin 17 (1997), pp. 473-79 (Heb.)
72. H. Cotton, and W. Eck, 'Ein Staatsmonopol und seiner Folgen: Plinius, Naturalis Historia 12,123 und der Preis für Balsam', Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 140 (1997), pp. 153-56
73. Y. Feliks, 'The History of Balsamon Cultivation in the Land of Israel', in Shimon Dar and Zev Safrai (eds) The Village in Ancient Israel (Tel Aviv: ERETZ - Geographic Research and Publications Project for the Advancement of Knowledge of Eretz-Israel, 1997), pp. 275-96 (Heb.)
74. F. Nigel Hepper, and Joan E. Taylor, 'Date Palms and Opobalsam in the Madaba Mosaic Map', PEQ 136 (2004), pp. 35-44
75. Joseph Patrich and Benny Arubas, 'A Juglet containing Balsam Oil (?) from a Cave near Qumran', IEJ 39 (1989), pp. 43-59
76. also publ. in Eretz Israel 20 (Yadin volume) (1989), pp. 321-29 (Hebrew)
77. Joseph Patrich, Agricultural Development in Antiquity: Improvements in the Cultivation and Production of Balsam', in Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert and Jürgen Zangenberg (eds), Qumran, the Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Brill, Leiden / Boston, 2006), pp. 241-48
78. and see also Moss, 'Historical Perspectives' (as in n. 6), p. 259
79. Additionally, in the Byzantine period, there is a curse in the floor of the synagogue (5th century) on anyone who reveals 'the secret of the town', which may possibly refer to specific information about some aspect of opobalsam propagation and processing, though see Patrich, 'Agricultural Development' (as in n. 24), p. 244, n. 40 (citing all the theories explaining the 'secret' of En Gedi)
80. See Marcus Milright, The Balsam of Matariyya: An Exploration of a Medieval Panacea', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 66 (2003), pp. 193-209
81. Hepper and Taylor, 'Date Palms and Opobalsam' (as in n. 24)
82. Magen Broshi, 'Date Beer and Date Wine in Antiquity', PEQ 139 (2007), pp. 55-59
83. Lev and Amar, Cairo Genizah (as in n. 24), pp. 397-98
84. Evidenced by the Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, see Eve Crane, A Book of Honey (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980), p. 96
85. and for further, Anathea E. Portier-Young, 'Sweet Mercy Metropolis: Interpreting Aseneth's Honeycomb, Journal for the study of the Pseudepigrapha 14 (2005), pp. 153-57, nn. 17, 28-33. I am grateful to George Brooke for this reference
86. See the references in James A. Kelhoffer, The Diet of John the Baptist: 'Locusts and Wild Honey' in Synoptic and Patristic Interpretation (J. C. B. Mohr / Paul Siebeck, Tübingen, 2005), pp. 65-67
87. Dennis C. Duling, 'The Eleazar Miracle and Solomon's Magical Wisdom in Flavius Josephus' Antiquitates Judaicae 8.42-49', Harvard Theological Review 78 (1985), pp. 1-25
88. See Twelftree, Jesus the Exorcist (as in n. 14), pp. 13-52: 'Exorcism and Exorcists in First-Century Palestine'
89. For this see Diodorus Siculus, Hist. 19: 99: 3; Galen, De Simpl. Med. 9: 2: 10; Josephus, War 4: 481. Ze'ev Safrai, The Economy of Roman Palestine (Routledge, London, 1994), pp. 187-88
90. Philip C. Hammond, The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea', Biblical Arachaeologist 22 (1959), pp. 40-48
91. Jürgen Zangenberg, 'Wildnis unter Palmen?' (as in pp. 5), pp. 135-37
92. M. Har-El, The Route of Salt, Sugar and Balsam Caravans in the Judaean Desert', GeoJournal 2/6 (1978), pp. 549-56
93. Arie Nissenbaum, Jürgen Rullkötter and Yoseph Yechielli, 'Are the Curative Properties of "Black Mud" from the Dead Sea due to the Presence of Bitumen (Asphalt) or Other Types of Organic Matter?', Environmental Geochemistry and Health 24 (2002), pp. 327-35
94. At-Tamimi, Al-Murshid 36b-37a; 54b-55a
95. Zohar Amar, 'The Production of Salt and Sulphur from the Dead Sea Region in the Tenth Century According to at-Tamimi', PEQ 130 (1998), pp. 3-7
96. R. M. Bloch, 'Red Salt and Grey Salt', Mad'a 6 (1962), pp. 3-8
97. cf. J. Rosenson, 'What were the Ships sailing on the Dead Sea in the Map of Madaba carrying?', Halamish 3 (1986), pp. 16-20
98. see Amar, 'Production of Salt' (as in n. 46), p. 5
99. Christa Clamer, ''Ain Ez-Zara Excavations 1986', Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 33 (1989), pp. 217-25
100. Christa Clamer, ead., Fouilles archéologiques de 'Aïn ez-Zâra / Callirhoé, villégiature hérodienne (Institut Français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient, Beirut, 1997)
101. Christa Clamer, ead., 'The Hot Springs of Kallirrhoe and Baarou', in Michele Piccirillo and Eugenio Alliata (eds), The Madaba Map Centenary 1897-1997 (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem, 1999), pp. 221-25
102. August Strobel and Stefan Wimmer, Kallirrhoë (En ez-Zara) (Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 2003)
103. Estée Dvorjetski, 'The Medicinal Hot Springs of Kallirrohe', Ariel 110-11 (1995), pp. 306-308 (Heb.)
104. See Eusebius, Onom. 44: 21-23; 112: 17; Peter the Iberian 82; R. Steven Notley and Ze'ev Safrai, Eusebius' Onomasticon (Brill, Leiden, 2005), p. 46
105. Ulrich Hübner, 'Baaras und Zeus Beelbaaros', Biblische Zeitschrift 39 (1995), pp. 252-55. Both Callirhoé and Baaras appear in the Mabada Mosaic Map
106. Estée Dvorjetski has suggested that the ships shown in the Madaba mosaic map were actually carrying glass vessels containing healing liquids, possibly bottles of thermal waters from around the lake. Estée Dvorjetski, 'The Thermo-Mineral Springs and the Ships' Load in the Dead Sea According to the Madaba Map', in G. Barkai and E. Schiler (eds), Eretz-Israel in the Madaba Map (Ariel, Jerusalem, 1996), pp. 82-88 (Heb.)
107. Werner Heinz, 'Antike Balneologie in späthellenistischer und römischer Zeit, zur medizinischen Wirkung römischer Baäder', in Wolfgang Haase and Hildegard Temporini (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang in der romisiches Welt 2.37.3 (Walter der Gruyter, Berlin / New York, 1996), pp. 2411-32
108. Fikret K. Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (MIT Press, New York, 1992)
109. Garrett G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1999), pp. 85-103
110. Garrett G. Fagan, id., 'Bathing for Health with Celsus and Pliny the Elder', The Classical Quarterly 56 (2006), pp. 190-207
111. Estée Dvorjetski, Leisure, Pleasure and Healing: Spa Culture and Medicine in Ancient Eastern Mediterranean (Brill, Leiden, 2007)
112. cf. Estée Dvorjetski, ead., Medicinal Hot Springs in Eretz-Israel during the Period of The Second Temple
113. Estée Dvorjetski, ead., 'Medicinal Hot Springs in Eretz-Israel and in the Decapolis during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods', ARAM Periodical, 4, 1 & 2 (1992), pp. 425-49
114. Estée Dvorjetski, ead., 'Healing Waters: The Social World of Hot Springs in Roman Palestine', Biblical Archaeology Review 30, 4 (2004), pp. 16-27, and p. 60
115. Moss, 'Case of Qumran' (as in n. 6), 54
116. Zohar Amar, The Ash and the Red Material from Qumran', DSD 5 (1998), pp. 1-15
117. This is a view that persisted until modern times, see Daniel the Abbot (1106-08), pp. 27-38, transl. William F. Ryan, in John Wilkinson, Jerusalem Pilgrimage 1099-1185 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1988). In the 15th century, Father Felix Fabri was told that no one should visit the lake because the stench from the sea makes you vulnerable to infection, sickness and death: Felix Fabri, Evagatorium, 236a
118. See Joan E. Taylor, Jewish Women Philosophers of First-Century Alexandria: Philo's Therapeutae Reconsidered (OUP, Oxford, 2003), pp. 75-81
119. 'Historical Perspectives' (as in n. 6), pp. 257-58
120. Hermann Lichtenberger, 'Spirits and Demons in the Dead Sea Scrolls', in James D. G. Dunn, Graham Stanton, Bruce W. Longenecker and Stephen C. Barton (eds), The Holy Spirit and Christian Origins (Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 2004), pp. 14-21
121. Mladen Popovic, Reading the Human Body: Physiognomics and Astrology in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Hellenistic-Early Roman Period Judaism (Brill, Leiden, 2007)
122. cf. T. S. Barton, Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Physiognomics and Medicine under the Roman Empire (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1994)
123. Simon Swain (ed.), Seeing the Face, Seeing the Soul: Polemon's Physiognomy from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007)
124. Elizabeth C Evans, 'Galen the Physician as a Physiognomist', Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 76 (1945), pp. 287-98
125. This text is still not fully understood, though the identification of it as a writing exercise is currently assumed, see Joseph Naveh, 'A Medical Document or a Writing Exercise? The So-Called 4QTherapeia', IEJ 36 (1986), pp. 52-55
126. contra J. M. Allegro, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth, rev. ed. (Prometheus, New York, 1984), pp. 235-40, pls. 16-17
127. James H. Charlesworth, The Discovery of a Dead Sea Scroll (4QTherapeia): Its Importance in the History of Medicine and Jesus Research (Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas, 1985)
128. cf. James H. Charlesworth, id., 'A Misunderstood Recently Published Dead Sea Scroll (4Q341)', Explorations 2 (American Institute for the Study of Religious Co-operation, Philadelphia, 1987)
129. a - 11Q11)', in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek Texts with English Translations Vol. 4A: Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers, ed. J. H. Charlesworth and H. W. L. Rietz (J. C. B. Mohr / Paul Siebeck / Westminster John Knox Press, Tübingen / Louisville, KY, 1997), pp. 216-33
130. Florentino Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, 2nd edn (Brill / Eerdmans, Leiden / New York / Cologne / Grand Rapids, 1996), 42, has - very oddly - '[n]o-one should wear perfumes on the sabbath'
131. Joseph M. Baumgarten, 'The 4Q Zadokite Fragments on Skin Disease', JJS41 (1990), pp. 157-58
132. See Rosner, Medicine in the Bible (as in n. 12), 79-90
133. David Halperin, 'The Book of Remedies, the Canonization of the Solomonic Writings, and the Riddle of Pseudo-Eusebius', JQR 72 (1982), pp. 269-92
134. Arthur J. Silverstein, 'Censorship of Medical Works: Hezekiah and "The Book of Remedies"', Dine Israel: An Annual of Jewish Law and Israel Family Law 7 (1976), pp. 151-57
135. Dennis C. Duling, 'Solomon, Exorcism and the Son of David', Harvard Theological Review 68 (1975), pp. 235-52
136. Dennis C. Duling, id., Testament of Solomon', in James H. Charlesworth (ed.), Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Darton, Longman and Todd, London, 1983), pp. 944-56
137. Dennis C. Duling, id., 'The Legend of Solomon the Magician in Antiquity: Problem and Perspectives', in Proceedings: Eastern Great Lakes Biblical Society 4 (1984), pp. 1-23
138. Dennis C. Duling, id., 'Eleazar Miracle' (as in n. 36)
139. a an exorcism takes place in the name of Solomon, see Torijano, pp. 43-52
140. Campbell Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets, Chiefly Graeco-Roman (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1950), pp. 208-21
141. Torijano, Solomon (as in n. 64), pp. 130-38
142. A large mound of date pits were found next to the date press installation of locus 75, see Magen and Peleg, 'Back to Qumran' (as in n. 1), 59-60, Fig. 3.6
143. Sealed jars buried in the cemetery contained a thick layer of polysaccharides, most likely indicating dehydrated date honey, see Stephen Pfann, 'A Table Prepared in the Wilderness; Pantries and Tables, Pure Food and Sacred Space at Qumran', in Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert and Jürgen Zangenberg (eds), Qumran, the Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Leiden / Boston: Brill, 2006), pp. 159-78, at p. 177
144. and cf. Stephen Pfann, The Wine Press (and Miqveh) at Kh. Qumran (loc. 75 and 69)', Revue Biblique 101 (1994), pp. 212-214
145. A date press has also been identified at nearby Ein Feshkha: Ehud Netzer, 'Did any Perfume Industry Exist at 'Ein Feshkha?', IEJ 55 (2005), pp. 97-100
146. L. Liphschitz, and G. Bonani, 'Wild and Cultivated Date Palm from Qumran Cave 24', Tel Aviv 28 (2001), pp. 305-309
147. Patrich and Arubas, 'Juglet' (as in n. 24)
148. See above, n.1
149. Randall Price, 'New Discoveries at Qumran', World of the Bible News and Views 6/3 (2004) (online edition)
150. Randall Price, id., 'Qumran Plateau', Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel 117 (2005) (online edition)
151. Salvador Butí, Nati Salvadó, Nuria Lope, Emilia Papiol, Elena Heras and Jan Gunneweg, 'Determination of Wine Residues in Qumran Amphora-35', Bio- and Material Cultures at Qumran, ed. Jan Gunneweg, Charles Greenblatt and Annemie Adriaans (Papers from a COST Action G8 working group held in Israel on 22-23 May, 2005; Fraunhofer IRB, Stuttgart, 2006), pp. 71-80
152. Salvatore P. Lucia, A History of Wine as Therapy (Lippicott, Philadelphia, 1963)
153. P. A. Norrie, 'A History of Wine as Medicine', in Wine: A Scientific Exploration, ed. Merton Sandler and Roger Pinder (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2003)
154. Helena Wouters, et al., 'Antique Glass from Khirbet Qumran: Archaeological Context and Chemical Determination', Bulletin of the Institut Royal du Patrimonie Artistique, Brussels 28 (2002), pp. 9-40
155. Helena Wouters, ead., 'Archaeological Glass from Khirbet Qumran: An Analytical Approach', Bio- and Material Cultures at Qumran, eds. Jan Gunneweg, Charles Greenblatt and Annemie Adriaans (Papers from a COST Action G8 working group held in Israel on 22-23 May, 2005; Fraunhofer IRB, Stuttgart, 2006), pp. 171-89
156. De Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (as in n. 20), pp. 71-75
157. Hirschfeld, 'Qumran in Context' (as in n. 1), p. 208
158. Netzer, 'Perfume Industry' (as in n. 67)
159. Pesach Bar Adon, 'Another Settlement of the Judaean Desert Sect at En el-Ghuweir on the Shores of the Dead Sea', BASOR 227 (1977), pp. 1-25, at 20
160. Solomon H. Steckoll, Z. Goffer, H. Nathan and N. Haas, 'Red-Stained Human Bones from Qumran', Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 7/11 (1971), pp. 1219-23