Anthropogenic pollutants: A threat to ecosystem sustainability?

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 364, Issue 1534, 2009, Pages 3391-3401

  Rhind, S M ^a  

^a SCOTTISH CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ecosystems; Endocrine disrupting compounds; Pollutants; Sustainability

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE; BIOACCUMULATION; BIOLOGICAL UPTAKE; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS; HEAVY METAL; METABOLISM; NATURE-SOCIETY RELATIONS; ORGANIC POLLUTANT; PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE; POLLUTION EFFECT; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; SUSTAINABILITY;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 72949085503     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: 14712970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0122     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Amezaga, M. R., Bellingham, M., Evans, N. P., Cotinot, C., Sharpe, R. M., Rhind, S. M., McNeilly, A. S. & Fowler, P. A. 2008. Ewes exposed to a cocktail of environmental chemicals as fetuses have fewer primordial follicles. Proc. Soc. Reprod Fertil., 29 June-1 July 2008, Edinburgh, UK, pp. 68. See http://www.srf-reproduction.org/meetings/conf2008/progabstractbook.pdf; accessed 02 September 2009.
2. Anway, M. D. & Skinner, M. K. 2006 Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors. Endocrinology 147, S43-S49. (doi:10.1210/en.2005-1058)
3. Batty, J., Leavitt, R. A., Biondot, N. & Polin, D. 1990 An ecotoxicological study of a population of the white footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) inhabiting a polychlorinated biphenyls-contaminated area. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 19, 283-290. (doi: 10.1007/BF01056098) (Pubitemid 20096869)
4. Beketov, M. A. & Liess, M. 2005 Acute contamination with esfenvalerate and food limitation: chronic effects on the mayfly, Cloeon dipterum. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 24, 1281-1286. (doi:10.1897/04-256Rl.l) (Pubitemid 40627954)
5. Bellingham, M., Fowler, P. A., Amezaga, M. R., Rhind, S. M., Cotinot, C., Mandon-Pepin, B., Sharpe, R. M., Kyle, C. E. & Evans, N. P. 2009 Exposure to a complex cocktail of environmental endocrine disrupting compounds disturbs the KiSS- 1/GPR54 system in ovine hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Environ. Health Perspect. See http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2009/0900699/abstract.html. (doi:10.1289/ehp.0900699)
6. Bostrom, C. E. et al. 2002 Cancer risk assessment, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(Suppl. 3), 451-488.
7. Bowman, J. C., Readman, J. W. & Zhou, J. L. 2003 Sorption of the natural endocrine disruptors, oestrone and estradiol-17B in the aquatic environment. Environ. Geochem. Health 25, 63-67. (doi:10.1023/A:1021296831175)
8. Brian, J. V. et al. 2005 Accurate prediction of the response of freshwater fish to a mixture of estrogenic chemicals. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 721-728.
9. Camus, L., Davies, P. E., Spicer, J. I. & Jones, M. B. 2004 Temperature dependent physiological response of Carcinus maenas exposed to copper. Mar. Environ. Res. 58, 781-785. (doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2004.03.093) (Pubitemid 38738961)
10. Clotfelter, E. D., Bell, A. M. & Levering, K. R. 2004 The role of animal behaviour in the study of endocrine disrupting chemicals. Anim. Behav. 68, 665-676. (doi: 10. 1016/j.anbehav.2004.05.004)
11. Colborn, T., Vom Saal, A. M. & Soto, A. M. 1993 Developmental effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals in wildlife and human. Environ. Health Perspect. 101, 378-384. (doi:10.2307/3431890) (Pubitemid 23343683)
12. Corkum, L. D., Ciborowski, J. J. H. & Lazar, R. 1997 The distribution and contaminant burdens of adults of the burrowing mayfly, Hexagenia, in Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 23, 383-390. (Pubitemid 28065755)
13. Crews, D., Gore, A. C., Hsu, T. S., Dangleben, N. L., Spinetta, M., Schallert, T., Anway, M. D. & Skinner, M. 2007 Transgenerational epigenetic imprints on mate preference. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 5942-5946. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0610410104) (Pubitemid 47175638)
14. Davis, D. L., Bell, M. L. & Fletcher, T. 2002 A look back at the London smog of 1952 and the half century since. Environ. Health Perspect. 110, A734-A735. (Pubitemid 36024274)
15. De Kretser, D. M. 1998 Are sperm counts really falling? Reprod. Fertil Dev. 10, 93-95.
16. Dodds, E. C. & Lawson, W. 1938 Molecular structure in relation to oestrogenic activity. Compounds without phenanthrene nucleus. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 118, 222-232.
17. Dodge, J. A. 1998 Natural and anthropogenic environmental oestrogens: the scientific basis for risk assessment. Structure/activity relationships. Pure Appl Chem. 70, 1725-1734. (doi:10.1351/pacl99870091725)
18. Eaton, D. L. & Klaassen, C. D. 2001 Casarett and Doull's toxicology, the basic science of poisons (eds L. J. Casarett, C. D. Klaassen & J. Doull), ch. 2, pp. 11-34, 6th edn. Highstown, NJ: McGraw Hill.
19. EC 2006 Regulation (EC). No. 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No. 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC.
20. Edwards, T. M. & Myers, J. P. 2007 Environmental exposures and gene regulation in disease etiology. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1264-1270. (Pubitemid 47484765)
21. Edwards, T. M., Miller, H. D. & Guillette, L. J. 2006 Water quality influences reproduction in female mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) from eight Florida springs. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 69-75.
22. Erhard, H. & Rhind, S. M. 2004 Prenatal and postnatal exposure to environmental pollutants in sewage sludge alters emotional reactivity and exploratory behaviour in sheep. Sci. Total Environ. 332, 101-108. (Pubitemid 39164714)
23. Evans, N. P., North, T., Dye, S. & Sweeney, T. 2004 Differential effects of the endocrine-disrupting compounds bisphenol-A and octylphenol on gonadotrophin secretion, in prepubertal ewe lambs. Dom. Anim. Endocr. 26, 61-73. (doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2003.09.005) (Pubitemid 38106234)
24. Evers, J. H. L. 2002 Female subfertility. Lancet 360,151-159. (doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09417-5)
25. Faber, R. & Hickey, J. 1973 Eggshell thinning, chlorinated hydrocarbons and mercury in inland aquatic bird eggs, 1969 and 1970. Pesticide Monit. J. 7, 27-36.
26. Fenton, S. E. 2006 Endocrine-disrupting compounds and mammary gland development: early exposure and later life consequences. Endocrinology 147, S18-S24. (doi:10. 1210/en.2005-1131)
27. Fowler, P. A., Gordon, K. L., Thow, C. A., Cash, P., Miller, D. W. Lea, R. G. & Rhind, S. M. 2007. Exposure to sewage sludge disrupts ewe mammogenesis. Proc. of Society for the Study of Reproduction, April 2007, York, UK See http://www.srf-reproduction.org/meetings/prog-book2007.pdf; accessed 02 September 2009.
28. Fowler, P. A. et al. 2008 In utero exposure to low doses of environmental pollutants disrupts fetal ovarian development in sheep. Mol. Human Reprod. 14, 269-280. (doi: 10.1093/molehr/gan020)
29. Fox, J. E. 2004 Chemical communication threatened by endocrine-disrupting compounds. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 648-653.
30. Fox, G. A., Lundberg, R., Wejhededen, C., Lind, L., Larsson, S., Orberg, J. & Lind, P. M. 2008 Health of herring gulls (Larus argentatus) in relation to breeding location in the early 1990s. III. Effects on the bone tissue. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 71, 1-9.
31. Fry, D. M. & Toone, C. K. 1981 DDT-induced feminization of gull embryos. Science 213, 922-924. (doi:10.1126/science.7256288)
32. Ghanem, A., Bados, P., Estaun, A. R., de Alencastro, L. F., Taibi, S., Einhorn, J. & Mougin, C. 2007 Concentrations and specific loads of glycophosphate, diuron, atrazine, nonylphenol and metabolites thereof in French urban sewage sludge. Chemosphere 69, 1368-1373. (doi: 10. 1016/j.chemosphere. 2007.05.022) (Pubitemid 47559166)
33. Gibbs, P. & Bryan, G. 1987 TBT paints and the demise of the dog-whelk, Nucella lapillus (Gastropoda). Oceans 19, 1482-1487. (doi:10.1109/OCEANS.1987.1160635) (Pubitemid 18583786)
34. Gray, L. E., Ostby, J., Furr, J., Price, M., Veeramachaneni, D. N. R. & Parks, L. 2000 Perinatal exposure to the phthalates DEHP, BBP, and DINP, but not DEP, DMP, or DOTP, alters sexual differentiation of the male rat. Toxicol. Sci. 58, 350-365. (doi:10.1093/toxsci/58.2.350) (Pubitemid 32042433)
35. Grun, F. et al. 2006 Endocrine disrupting organotin compounds are potent inducers of adipogenesis in vertebrates. Mol Endocrinol 20, 2141-2155. (doi:10. 1210/me.2005-0367) (Pubitemid 44286710)
36. Guillette, L. J., Gross, T. S., Masson, J. R., Matter, J. M., Percival, H. F. & Woodward, A. R. 1994 Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ. Health Perspect. 102, 680-688. (doi: 10.2307/3432198)
37. Ha, M.-H., Lee, D.-H. & Jacobs, D. R. 2007 Association between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and self-reported cardiovascular disease prevalence: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2002. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1204-1209. (Pubitemid 351802353)
38. Halliday. 1999 The great stink of London: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the cleansing of the Victorian metropolis. Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishers.
39. Hansen, L. 1998 Stepping backward to improve assessment of PCB congener toxicities. Environ. Health Perspect. 106, 171-189. (doi: 10.2307/3433919) (Pubitemid 28196043)
40. Harrison, E. Z., Oakes, S. R., Hysell, M. & Hay, A. 2006 Organic chemicals in sewage sludge. Sci. Total Environ. 367,481-497.
41. Hermsen, S. A. B. et al. 2008 In utero, lactational exposure to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) affects bone tissue in rhesus monkeys. Toxicology 253, 147-152. (doi:10.1016/j.tox.2008.09.005)
42. Holmstrup, M. 1997 Drought tolerance in Folsomia candida Willem (Collembola) afterexposure to sublethal concentrations of three soil-polluting chemicals. Pedobiologia 41, 361-368. (Pubitemid 27369590)
43. Hong, S., Candelone, J.-P., Patterson, C. C. & Boutron, C. F. 1996 History of ancient copper smelting pollution during Roman and medieval times recorded in Greenland ice. Science 272, 246-249. (doi:10.1126/science.272. 5259.246) (Pubitemid 27001947)
44. Hoss, S. & Weltje, L. 2007 Endocrine disruption in nematodes: effects and mechanism. Ecotoxicology 16, 15-28. (doi:10.1007/sl0646-006-0108-y) (Pubitemid 46292040)
45. Hruska, K. S., Furth, P. A., Seifer, D. B., Shahara, F. I. & Flaws, J. A. 2000 Environmental factors in infertility. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 43, 821-829. (doi: 10.1097/00003081-200012000-200100014)
46. IEH. 1999 IEH assessment of the ecological significance of endocrine disruption: effects on reproductive function and consequences for natural populations (assessment A4). Leicester, UK: MRC Institute for Environment and Health.
47. Ives, A. R. & Carpenter, S. R. 2007 Stability and diversity of ecosystems. Science 317, 58-62. (doi:10.1126/science. 1133258)
48. Kelly, B. C., Ikonomou, M. G., Blair, J. D., Morin, A. E. & Gobas, F. A. P. C. 2007 Food web-specific biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants. Science 317, 236-238. (doi:10.1126/science.l 138275)
49. Klaper, R., Rees, C. B., Drevnick, P., Weber, E. D., Sandheinrich, M. & Carvan, M. J. 2006 Gene expression changes related to endocrine function and decline in reproduction in fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) after dietary methylmercury exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 1337-1343. (Pubitemid 44314754)
50. Kortenkamp, A. 2006 Breast cancer, oestrogens and environmental pollutants: a re-evaluation from a mixture perspective. Int. J Androl. 29, 193-198. (doi:10.1111/J.1365-2605.2005.00613.X)
51. Kortenkamp, A. 2007 Ten years of mixing cocktails: a review of combination effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environ. Health Perspect. 115(Suppl. 1), 98-105.
52. Kovats, Z. E. & Ciborowski, J. H. 1989 Aquatic insect adults as indicators of organochlorine contamination. J. Great Lakes Res. 15, 623-634.
53. Kuntz, J., Nassr-Amellal, N., Lollier, M., Schmidt, J. E. & Lebeau, T. 2008 Effect of sludges on bacteria in agricultural soil. Analysis at laboratory and outdoor lysimeter scale. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 69, 277-288. (doi: 10. 1016/j.ecoenv.2007.05.013) (Pubitemid 350181081)
54. Landrum, P. F., Tigue, E. A., Driscoll, S. K., Gossiaux, D. C., Van Hoof, P. L., Gedeon, M. L. & Adler, M. 2001 Bioaccumulation of PCB congeners by Diporeia spp.: kinetics and factors affecting bioavailability. J Great Lakes Res. 27, 117-133. (Pubitemid 32554684)
55. Langer, P., Tajtakova, M., Fodor, G., Kocan, A., Bohov, P., Michalek, J. & Kreze, A. 1998 Increased thyroid volume and prevalence of thyroid disorders in an area heavily polluted by polychlorinated biphenyls. Eur. J Endocrinol. 139,402-409. (doi:10.1530/eje.0.1390402) (Pubitemid 28494084)
56. Law, R. J., Alaee, M., Allchin, C. R., Boon, J. P., Lebeuf, M., Lepom, P. & Stern, G. A. 2003 Levels and trends of polybrominated diphenylethers and other brominated flame retardants in wildlife. Environ. Int. 29, 757-770. (doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00110-7) (Pubitemid 37337121)
57. Lee, R. G. M., Thomas, G. O. & Jones, K. C. 2004 PBDEs in the atmosphere of three locations in Western Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 699-706. (doi:10.1021/es035042c)
58. Lind, P. M., Bergman, A., Olsson, M. & Orberg, J. 2003 Bone mineral density in male Baltic seal (Halichoerus grypus). Ambio 32, 385-388.
59. Lind, P. M., Milnes, M. R., Lundberg, R., Bermudez, D., Orberg, J. & Guillette, L. J. 2004a Abnormal bone composition in female juvenile American alligators from a pesticide-polluted lake (Lake Apopka, Florida). Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 359-362. (Pubitemid 38351400)
60. Lind, P. M., Orberg, J., Edlund, U.-B., Sjoblom, L. & Lind, L. 2004b The dioxin-like pollutant PCB 126 (3, 3', 4, 4', 5pentachlorobiphenyl) affects risk factors for cardiovascular disease in female rats. Toxicol. Lett. 150, 293-299. (doi: 10. 1016/j.toxlet.2004.02.008) (Pubitemid 38510581)
61. Markich, S. J., Jeffree, R. A. & Burke, P. T. 2002 Freshwater bivalve shells as archival indicators of metal pollution from a copper-uranium mine in tropical Northern Australia. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36, 821-832. (doi: 10. 1021/esO 11066c)
62. Markman, S., Guschina, I. A., Barnsley, S., Buchanan, K. L., Pascoe, D. & Muller, C. T. 2007 Endocrine disrupting chemicals accumulate in earthworms exposed to sewage effluent. Chemosphere 70, 119-125. (doi:10.1016/j. chemosphere.2007.06.045) (Pubitemid 350016236)
63. Markman, S., Leitner, S., Catchpole, C., Barnsley, S., Muller, C. T., Pascoe, D. & Buchanan, K. L. 2008 Pollutants increase song complexity and the volume of the brain area HVC in a songbird. PLoS ONE 3, el674. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001674) (Pubitemid 351877719)
64. McCormick, S. D., O'Dea, M. F., Moeckel, A. M., Lerner, D. T. & Bjornsson, B. T. 2005 Endocrine disruption of parr-smolt transformation and seawater tolerance of Atlantic salmon by 4-nonylphenol and 17β-estradiol. Gen. Comp. Physiol. 142, 280-288.
65. McCoy, K. A., Bortnick, L. J., Campbell, C. M., Hamlin, H. J., Guillette, L. J. & St Mary, C. M. 2008 Agriculture alters gonadal form and function in the toad Bufo marinus. Environ. Health Perspect 116, 1526-1532.
66. Meerts, I. A. T. M., Letcher, R. J., Hoving, S., Marsh, G., Bergman, A., Lemmen, J. G., van der Berg, B. & Brouwer, A. 2001 In vitro estrogenicity of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, hydroxylated PBDEs, and polybrominated bisphenol A compounds. Environ. Health Perspect. 109, 399-407. (doi: 10.2307/3454900) (Pubitemid 32451650)
67. Moral, R., Wang, R., Russo, I. H., Lamartiniere, C. A., Pereira, J. & Russo, J. 2008 Effect of prenatal exposure to the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A on mammary gland morphology and gene expression signature. J. Endocrinol. 196, 101-112. (doi:10.1677/JOE-07-0056) (Pubitemid 351234575)
68. Morley, N. J. 2006 Parasitism as a source of potential distortion in studies on endocrine disrupting chemicals in molluscs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 52, 1330-1332. (doi:10. 1016/j.marpolbul.2006.08.025)
69. Naert, C., Van Peteghem, C., Kupper, J., Jenni, L. & Naegeli, H. 2007 Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in birds of prey from Switzerland. Chemosphere 68, 977-987. (doi:10.1016/j. chemosphere.2007.01.009) (Pubitemid 46602493)
70. Nebert, D. W. 2005 Inter-individual susceptibility to environmental toxicants-a current assessment. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 207, S34-S42.
71. Newbold, R. R., Padilla-Banks, E., Snyder, R. J., Phillips, T. M. & Jefferson, W. N. 2007 Developmental exposure to endocrine disruptors and the obesity epidemic. Reprod. Toxicol. 23, 290-296. (doi:10.1016/j.reprotox. 2006.12.010) (Pubitemid 46628873)
72. Nordstrom Joensen, U., Skakkebaek, N. E. & Jorgensen, N. 2009 Is there a problem with male reproduction? Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab. 5, 144-145.
73. Norstrom, R. J. 2002 Understanding bioaccumulation of POPs in food webs. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 9, 300-303. (doi:10.1007/BF02987570)
74. Oehlmann, J., Di Benedetto, P., Tillmann, M., Duft, M., Oetken, M. & Schulte-Oehlmann, U. 2007 Endocrine disruption in prosobranch molluscs: evidence and ecological relevance. Ecotoxicology 16, 29-43. (doi: 10.1007/s10646-006- 0109-x) (Pubitemid 46292041)
75. Paul, C., Rhind, S. M., Kyle, C. E., Scott, H., McKinnell, C. & Sharpe, R. M. 2005 Cellular and hormonal disruption of fetal testis development in sheep reared on pasture treated with sewage sludge. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 1530-1587. (Pubitemid 41614915)
76. Rajapakse, N., Silva, E. & Kortenkamp, A. 2002 Combining xenoestrogens at levels below individual no-observedeffect concentrations dramatically enhances steroid hormone action. Environ. Health Perspect. 110, 917-921.
77. Rhind, S. M. 2005 Are endocrine disrupting compounds a threat to farm animal health, welfare and productivity? Reprod. Dom. Anim. 40, 282-290. (doi:10.1111/j.l4390531.2005.00594.x)
78. Rhind, S. M. 2008 Endocrine disruptors and other food contaminating environmental pollutants as risk factors in animal reproduction. Reprod Dom. Anim. 43(Suppl. 2), 15-22.
79. Rhind, S. M., Smith, A., Kyle, C. E., Telfer, G., Martin, G., Duff, E. & Mayes, R. W. 2002 Phthalate and alkyl phenol concentrations in soil following applications of inorganic fertiliser or sewage sludge to pasture and potential rates of ingestion by grazing ruminants. J. Environ. Monitor. 4, 142-148. (doi:10.1039/bl07539j) (Pubitemid 34155199)
80. Rhind, S. M., Kyle, C. E., Telfer, G., Duff, E. I. & Smith, A. 2005a Alkyl phenols and diethylhexyl phthalate in tissues of sheep grazing pastures fertilised with sewage sludge or inorganic fertilizer. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 447-453. (Pubitemid 40601822)
81. Rhind, S. M., Kyle, C. E. & Owen, J. 2005b Accumulation of potentially toxic metals in the liver tissue of sheep grazed on sewage sludge-treated pastures. Anim. Sci. 81, 107-113. (Pubitemid 41215082)
82. Rhind, S. M., Kyle, C. E., Mackie, C. & McDonald, L. 2009 Accumulation of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in sheep fetal and maternal liver tissue following exposure to pastures treated with sewage sludge. J. Environ. Monitor. 11, 1469-1476.
83. Schiedek, D., Sundelin, B., Readman, J. & Macdonald, R. W. 2007 Interactions between climate change and contaminants. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54, 1845-1856. (doi:10. 1016/j.marpolbul.2007.09.020)
84. Setchell, B. 1997 Sperm counts in semen of farm animals 1932-1995. Int. J. Androl. 20, 209-214. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-2605.1997.00054.x) (Pubitemid 27493937)
85. Sharara, F. I., Seifer, D. B. & Flaws, J. A. 1998 Environmental toxicants and female reproduction. Fertil Steril. 70, 613-622. (doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00253-2)
86. Sharpe, R. M. & Skakkebaek, N. E. 2008 Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: mechanistic insights and potential new downstream effects. Fertil. Steril. 89(Suppl. 1), e33-e38.
87. Sharpe, R. M., Fisher, J. S., Millar, M. M., Jobling, S. & Sumpter, J. P. 1995 Gestational and lactational exposure of rats to xenoestrogens results in reduced testicular size and sperm production. Environ. Health Perspect. 103, 1136-1143. (doi:10.2307/3432610) (Pubitemid 26141419)
88. Smith, B. S. 1981 Male characteristics on female mud snails caused by antifouling paints. J. Appl Toxicol 1, 22-25. (doi: 10.1002/jat.25 50010106)
89. Smith, S. R. 1996 Organic pollutants. In Agricultural recycling of sewage sludge and the environment, ch. 10, pp. 207-236. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
90. Spurgeon, D. J., Hopkin, S. P. & Jones, D. T. 1994 The effects of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc on growth, reproduction and survival of the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny): assessing the environmental impact of point-source metal contamination in terrestrial ecosytems. Environ. Pollut. 84A, 123-130. (Pubitemid 24048643)
91. Stevens, J. L., Northcott, G. L., Stern, G. A., Tomy, G. T. & Jones, K. C. 2003 PAHs, PCBs, PCNs, organochlorine pesticides, synthetic musks, and polychlorinated n-alkanes in UK sewage sludge: survey results and implications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37,462-467. (doi:10.1021/es020161y)
92. Sures, B. 2006 How parasitism and pollution affect the physiological homeostasis of aquatic hosts. J. Helminthol 80, 151-157. (doi:10.1079/ JOH2006346) (Pubitemid 44065907)
93. Tonne, C. C., Whyatt, R. M., Camann, D., Perera, F. P. & Kinney, P. L. 2004 Predictors of personal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure among pregnant minority women in New York City. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 754-759. (Pubitemid 38628407)
94. Toppari, J. et al 1996 Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environ. Health Perspect. 104(Suppl. 4), 741-803.
95. Vine, M. F., Stein, L., Weigle, K., Schroeder, J., Degnan, D., Chiu-kit, J. T., Hanchette, C. & Backer, L. 2000 Effects on the immune system associated with living near a pesticide dump site. Environ. Health Perspect. 108, 1113-1124. (doi: 10.2307/3434822) (Pubitemid 32049096)
96. Whitelaw, C. M., Rhind, S. M., Kyle, C. E. & Evans, N. P. 2007. Expression of the mRNAs for galanin and its receptors is suppressed by exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds during ovine foetal development. Proc. British Soc. Neuroendocrinal, 10-11 September 2007, Nottingham, UK.
97. Wienburg, C. L. & Shore, R. F. 2004 Factors influencing liver PCB concentrations in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and herons (Ardea cinerea) in Britain. Environ. Pollut. 132, 41-50. (doi:10. 1016/j.envpol.2004.03.027)
98. Wilkinson, J. M., Hill, J. & Phillips, J. C. 2003 The accumulation of potentially toxic metals by grazing ruminants. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 62, 267-277. (Pubitemid 36841601)
99. Wolfe, W. H., Michalek, J. E., Miner, J. C., Rahe, A. J., Moore, C. A., Needham, L. L. & Patterson, D. G. 1995 Paternal serum dioxin and reproductive outcomes among veterans of Operation Ranch Hand. Epidemiology 6, 17-22.
100. Yunker, M. B., Macdonald, R. W., Vingarzan, R., Mitchell, R. H., Goyette, D. & Sylvestre, S. 2002 PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org. Geochem. 33, 489-515. (doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(02) 00002-5) (Pubitemid 34294057)