Quantifying the imprint of a severe hector thunderstorm during ACTIVE/SCOUT-O3 onto the water content in the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere

Monthly Weather Review

Volumn 137, Issue 8, 2009, Pages 2493-2514

  Chemel, Charles ^a   Russo, Maria R ^b   Pyle, John A ^b   Sokhi, Ranjeet S ^a   Schiller, Cornelius ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HERTFORDSHIRE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^c FORSCHUNGSZENTRUM JÜLICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADVANCED RESEARCHES; ATMOSPHERIC CONSTITUENTS; AUSTRALIA; CHEMICAL TRANSPORT; CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT; CUMULUS CLOUD; DEEP CONVECTION; ENTRAINMENT PROCESS; FIELD CAMPAIGN; HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION; ICE PARTICLES; LOWER STRATOSPHERE; NUMERICAL SIMULATION; SENSITIVITY-OF-RESULTS; SIGNIFICANT IMPACTS; SPACE AND TIME; UNIFIED MODEL; UPPER TROPOSPHERE; WATER VAPOR MIXING RATIO; WEATHER RESEARCH AND FORECASTING;

AIR ENTRAINMENT; ATMOSPHERICS; CLOUDS; LARGE EDDY SIMULATION; SIMULATORS; SULFUR COMPOUNDS; THUNDERSTORMS; WATER CONTENT; WATER VAPOR; WEATHER FORECASTING; WEATHER SATELLITES;

PHASE INTERFACES;

MIXING RATIO; NUMERICAL METHOD; SIMULATION; STRATOSPHERE; THUNDERSTORM; TROPOSPHERE; WATER CONTENT; WEATHER FORECASTING;

AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA; NORTHERN TERRITORY; TIWI ISLANDS;

EID: 70350302279     PISSN: 00270644     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1175/2008MWR2666.1     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Allen, G., and Coauthors, 2008: Aerosol and trace-gas measurements in the Darwin area during the wet season. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D06306, doi:10.1029/2007JD008706.
2. Atticks, M. G., and G. D. Robinson, 1983: Some features of the structure of the tropical tropopause. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 109, 295-308.
3. Balaji, V., and T. L. Clark, 1988: Scale selection in locally forced convective fields and the initiation of deep cumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3188-3211.
4. Brewer, A. W., 1949: Evidence for a world circulation provided by the measurements of helium and water vapour distribution in the stratosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 75, 351-363.
5. Brier, G. W., and J. Simpson, 1969: Tropical cloudiness and rainfall related to pressure and tidal variations. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 95, 120-147.
6. Bryan, G. H., J. C. Wyngaard, and J. M. Fritsch, 2003: Resolution requirements for the simulation of deep moist convection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 2394-2416.
7. Carbone, R. E., J. W. Wilson, T. D. Keenan, and J. M. Hacker, 2000: Tropical island convection in the absence of significant topography. Part I: Life cycle of diurnally forced convection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3459-3480.
8. Chaboureau, J.-P., J.-P. Cammas, J. Duron, P. J. Mascart, N. M. Sitnikov, and H.-J. Voessing, 2007: A numerical study of tropical cross-tropopause transport by convective over-shoots. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1731-1740.
9. Chen, S. S., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1997: Diurnal variation and life-cycle of deep convective systems over the tropical Pacific warm pool. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123, 357-388.
10. Collins, W. D., and Coauthors, 2006: The formulation and atmospheric simulation of the Community Atmosphere Model Version 3 (CAM3). J. Climate, 19, 2144-2161.
11. Connolly, P. J., T. W. Choularton, M. W. Gallagher, K. N. Bower, M. J. Flynn, and J. A. Whiteway, 2006: Cloud-resolving simulations of intense tropical Hector thunderstorms: Implications for aerosol-cloud interactions. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 132, 3079-3106.
12. Corti, T., and Coauthors, 2008: Unprecedented evidence for deep convection hydrating the tropical stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L10810, doi:10.1029/2008GL033641.
13. Crook, N. A., 2001: Understanding Hector: The dynamics of island thunderstorms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 1550-1563.
14. Dailey, P. S., and R. G. Fovell, 1999: Numerical simulation of the interaction between the sea-breeze front and horizontal convective rolls. Part I: Offshore ambient flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 858-878.
15. Danielsen, E. F., 1982: A dehydration mechanism for the stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 9, 605-608.
16. Danielsen, E. F. 1993: In situ evidence of rapid, vertical, irreversible transport of lower tropospheric air into the lower tropical stratosphere by convective cloud turrets and by large-scale upwelling in tropical cyclones. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8665-8681.
17. Davies, T., M. J. P. Cullen, A. J. Malcolm, M. H. Mawson, A. Staniforth, A. A. White, and N. Wood, 2005: A new dynamical core for the Met Office's global and regional modelling of the atmosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 1759-1782.
18. Deardorff, J. W., 1980: Stratocumulus-capped mixed layers derived from a three-dimensional model. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 18, 495-527.
19. Dessler, A. E., 1998: A reexamination of the "stratospheric fountain" hypothesis. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 4165-4168.
20. Dessler, A. E., 2002: The effect of deep, tropical convection on the tropical tropopause layer. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4033, doi:10.1029/2001JD000511.
21. 2O and HDO in the tropical tropopause layer. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D18309, doi:10.1029/2007JD008609.
22. Dickerson, R. R., and Coauthors, 1987: Thunderstorms: An important mechanism in the transport of air pollutants. Science 235, 460-465.
23. Edwards, J. M., and A. Slingo, 1996: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a large-scale model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 689-719.
24. Ek, M. B., K. E. Mitchell, Y. Lin, E. Rogers, P. Grunmann, V. Koren, G. Gayno, and J. D. Tarpley, 2003: Implementation of Noah land surface model advances in the National Centers for Environmental Prediction operational mesoscale Eta model. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8851, doi:10.1029/2002JD003296.
25. Essery, R. L. H., M. J. Best, R. A. Betts, P. M. Cox, and C. M. Taylor, 2003: Explicit representation of subgrid heterogeneity in a GCM land surface scheme. J. Hydrometeor., 4, 530-543.
26. Etling, D., and R. A. Brown, 1993: Roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer: A review. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 65, 215-248.
27. Farr, T. G., and Coauthors, 2007: The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Rev. Geophys., 45, RG2004, doi:10.1029/2005RG000183.
28. Folkins, I., 2002: Origin of lapse rate changes in the upper tropical troposphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 992-1005.
29. Folkins, I., M. Loewenstein, J. Podolske, S. J. Oltmans, and M. Proffitt, 1999: A barrier to vertical mixing at 14 km in the tropics: Evidence from ozonesondes and aircraft measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 22 095-22 102.
30. Folkins, I., K. K. Kelly, and E. M. Weinstock, 2002: A simple explanation for the increase in relative humidity between 11 and 14 km in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4736, doi:10.1029/ 2002JD002185.
31. Forster, P., and K. P. Shine, 1999: Stratospheric water vapour changes as a possible contributor to observed stratospheric cooling. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3309-3312.
32. Fovell, R. G., and P. S. Dailey, 2001: Numerical simulation of the interaction between the sea-breeze front and horizontal convective rolls. Part II: Alongshore ambient flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2057-2072.
33. Friedl, M. A., and Coauthors, 2002: Global land cover mapping from MODIS: Algorithms and early results. Remote Sens. Environ., 83, 287-302.
34. Fueglistaler, S., and P. H. Haynes, 2005: Control of interannual and longer-term variability of stratospheric water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D24108, doi:10.1029/2005JD006019.
35. Gettelman, A., and A. H. Sobel, 2000: Direct diagnoses of stratosphere-troposphere exchange. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 3-16.
36. Gettelman, A., and T. Birner, 2007: Insights into tropical tropopause layer processes using global models. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D23104, doi:10.1029/2007JD008945.
37. Gettelman, A. J., Harries, and P. W. Mote, 2000: Distribution and variability of water vapour in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. SPARC Assessment of Upper Tropospheric and Stratospheric Water Vapour, WMO/TD 1043, SPARC Rep. 2 of WCRP-113, D. Kley, J. M. Russell III, and C. Phillips, Eds., World Meteorological Organization, 196-264.
38. Golding, B. W., 1992: An efficient non-hydrostatic forecast model. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 50, 89-103.
39. Golding, B. W., 1993: A numerical investigation of tropical island thunderstorms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 1417-1433.
40. Gray, W. M., and R. W. Jacobson Jr., 1977: Diurnal variation of deep cumulus convection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1171-1188.
41. Gregory, D., and P. R. Rowntree, 1990: A mass flux convection scheme with representation of cloud ensemble characteristics and stability-dependent closure. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1483-1506.
42. Grell, G. A., and D. Dévényi, 2002: A generalized approach to parameterizing convection combining ensemble and data assimilation techniques. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1693, doi:10.1029/ 2002GL015311.
43. Grosvenor, D. P., T. W. Choularton, H. Coe, and G. Held, 2007: A study of the effect of over-shooting deep convection on the water content of the TTL and lower stratosphere from Cloud Resolving Model simulations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4977-5002.
44. Hamilton, K., R. A. Vincent, and P. T. May, 2004: Darwin Area Wave Experiment (DAWEX) field campaign to study gravity wave generation and propagation. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20S01, doi:10.1029/ 2003JD004393.
45. Hastings, D. A., and P. K. Dunbar, 1998: Development and assessment of the Global Land One-km Base Elevation digital elevation model (GLOBE). ISPRS Archives, 32, 218-221.
46. Highwood, E. J., and B. J. Hoskins, 1998: The tropical tropopause. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 1574-1604.
47. Holland, G. J., J. L. McBride, R. K. Smith, D. Jasper, and T. D. Keenan, 1986: The BMRC Australian Monsoon Experiment: AMEX. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 67, 1466-1472.
48. Holton, J. R., and A. Gettelman, 2001: Horizontal transport and the dehydration of the stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2799-2802.
49. Holton, J. R., P. H. Haynes, M. E. McIntyre, A. R. Douglass, R. B. Rood, and L. Pfister, 1995: Stratosphere-troposphere exchange. Rev. Geophys., 33, 403-439.
50. Hong, S.-Y., Y. Noh, and J. Dudhia, 2006: A new vertical diffusion package with an explicit treatment of entrainment processes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 134, 2318-2341.
51. Houze, R. A., Jr., S. G. Geotis, F. D. Marks Jr., and A. K. West, 1981: Winter monsoon convection in the vicinity of North Borneo. Part I: Structure and time variation of clouds and precipitation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1595-1614.
52. Jensen, E. J., L. Pfister, A. S. Ackerman, and A. Tabazadeh, 2001: A conceptual model of the dehydration of air due to freeze-drying by optically thin, laminar cirrus rising slowly across the tropical tropopause. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 17 237-17 252.
53. Jensen, E. J., A. S. Ackerman, and J. A. Smith, 2007: Can overshooting convection dehydrate the tropical tropopause layer? J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11209, doi:10.1029/2006JD007943.
54. Keenan, T. D., and L. R. Brody, 1988: Synoptic-scale modulation of convection during the Australian summer monsoon. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 71-85.
55. Keenan, T. D., and R. E. Carbone, 1992: A preliminary morphology of precipitation systems in tropical northern Australia. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 283-326.
56. Keenan, T. D., J. McBride, G. Holland, N. Davidson, and B. Gunn, 1989a: Diurnal variations during the Australian Monsoon Experiment (AMEX) Phase II. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 2535-2552.
57. Keenan, T. D., B. R. Morton, M. J. Manton, and G. J. Holland, 1989b: The Island Thunderstorm Experiment (ITEX) - A study of tropical thunderstorms in the Maritime Continent. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 70, 152-159.
58. Keenan, T. D., B. R. Morton, X. S. Zhang, and K. Nyguen, 1990: Some characteristics of thunderstorms over Bathurst and Melville Islands near Darwin, Australia. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 116, 1153-1172.
59. Keenan, T. D., B. Ferrier, and J. Simpson, 1994: Development and structure of a Maritime Continent thunderstorm. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 53, 185-222.
60. Keenan, T. D., K. Glasson, F. Cummings, T. S. Bird, J. Keeler, and J. Lutz, 1998: The BMRC/NCAR C-band polarimetric (C-POL) radar system. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 15, 871-886.
61. Keenan, T. D., and Coauthors, 2000: The Maritime Continent Thunderstorm Experiment (MCTEX): Overview and some results. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81, 2433-2455.
62. Keith, D. W., 2000: Stratosphere-troposphere exchange: Inferences from the isotopic composition of water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 15 167-15 173.
63. Kelly, K. K., M. H. Proffitt, K. R. Chan, M. Loewenstein, J. R. Podolske, S. E. Strahan, J. C. Wilson, and D. Kley, 1993: Water vapor and cloud water measurements over Darwin during the STEP 1987 tropical mission. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8713-8723.
64. Kingsmill, D. E., 1995: Convection initiation associated with a seabreeze front, a gust front, and their interaction. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2913-2933.
65. Kirk-Davidoff, D. B., E. J. Hintsa, J. G. Anderson, and D. W. Keith, 1999: The effect of climate change on ozone depletion through changes in stratospheric water vapour. Nature, 402, 399-401.
66. Kley, D., A. L. Schmeltekopf, K. Kelly, R. H. Winkler, T. L. Thompson, and M. McFarland, 1982: Transport of water through the tropical tropopause. Geophys. Res. Lett., 9, 617-620.
67. Kraus, E. B., 1963: The diurnal precipitation change over the sea. J. Atmos. Sci., 20, 551-556.
68. Kritz, M. A., S. W. Rosner, K. K. Kelly, M. Loewenstein, and R. Chan, 1993: Radon measurements in the lower tropical stratosphere: Evidence for rapid vertical transport and dehydration of tropospheric air. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8725-8736.
69. Kuang, Z., and C. S. Bretherton, 2004: Convective influence on the heat balance of the tropical tropopause layer: A cloud-resolving model study. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 2919-2927.
70. Kuettner, J. P., 1971: Cloud bands in the earth's atmosphere: Observations and theory. Tellus, 23, 404-426.
71. Kullgren, K., and K.-Y. Kim, 2006: Physical mechanisms of the Australian summer monsoon: 1. Seasonal cycle. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D20104, doi:10.1029/2005JD006807.
72. Küpper, C., J. Thuburn, G. C. Craig, and T. Birner, 2004: Mass and water transport into the tropical stratosphere: A cloud-resolving simulation. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D10111, doi:10.1029/ 2004JD004541.
73. Liu, C., and M. W. Moncrieff, 1996: A numerical study of the effects of ambient flow and shear on density currents. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 2282-2303.
74. Liu, C., and E. J. Zipser, 2005: Global distribution of convection penetrating the tropical tropopause. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D23104, doi:10.1029/2005JD006063.
75. Lock, A. P., A. R. Brown, M. R. Bush, G. M. Martin, and R. N. B. Smith, 2000: A new boundary layer mixing scheme. Part I: Scheme description and single column model tests. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3177-3199.
76. Loveland, T. R., B. C. Reed, J. F. Brown, D. O. Ohlen, J. Zhu, L. Yang, and J. W. Merchant, 2000: Development of a global land cover characteristics database and IGBP DISCover from 1-km AVHRR data. Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1303-1330.
77. Marécal, V., E. D. Rivière, G. Held, S. Cautenet, and S. Freitas, 2006: Modelling study of the impact of deep convection on the UTLS air composition-Part I: Analysis of ozone precursors. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1567-1584.
78. May, P. T., and D. K. Rajopadhyaya, 1999: Vertical velocity characteristics of deep convection over Darwin, Australia. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 1056-1071.
79. May, P. T., and A. Ballinger, 2007: The statistical characteristics of convective cells in a monsoon regime (Darwin, Northern Australia). Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 82-92.
80. May, P. T., J. H. Mather, G. Vaughan, C. Jakob, G. M. McFarquhar, K. N. Bower, and G. G. Mace, 2008: The Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 89, 629-645.
81. McBride, J. L., 1987: The Australian summer monsoon. Monsoon Meteorology, C. P. Chang and T. N. Krishnamurti, Eds., Clarendon Press, 60-92.
82. Mote, P. W., and Coauthors, 1996: An atmospheric tape recorder: The imprint of tropical tropopause temperatures on stratospheric water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 3989-4006.
83. Newell, R. E., and S. Gould-Stewart, 1981: A stratospheric fountain? J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 2789-2796.
84. Oliphant, A. J., A. P. Sturman, and N. J. Tapper, 2001: The evolution and structure of a tropical island sea/land breeze system, northern Australia. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 78, 45-59.
85. Pommereau, J.-P., and Coauthors, 2007: An overview of the HIBISCUS campaign. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 7, 2389-2475.
86. Potter, B. E., and J. R. Holton, 1995: The role of monsoon convection in the dehydration of the lower tropical stratosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1034-1050.
87. Ramage, C. S., 1968: Role of a tropical "Maritime Continent" in the atmospheric circulation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 96, 365-370.
88. Read, W. G., D. L. Wu, J. W. Waters, and H. C. Pumphrey, 2004: Dehydration in the tropical tropopause layer: Implications from the UARS Microwave Limb Sounder. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06110, doi:10.1029/2003JD004056.
89. Reid, G. C., and K. S. Gage, 1996: The tropical tropopause over the western Pacific: Wave driving, convection, and the annual cycle. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 21 233-21 241.
90. Riehl, H., and J. S. Malkus, 1958: On the heat balance in the equatorial trough zone. Geophysica, 6, 503-538.
91. Rivière, E. D., V. Marécal, N. Larsen, and S. Cautenet, 2006: Modelling study of the impact of deep convection on the UTLS air composition - Part 2: Ozone budget in the TTL. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1585-1598.
92. Robinson, F. J., and S. C. Sherwood, 2006: Modeling the impact of convective entrainment of the tropical tropopause. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1013-1027.
93. Robinson, F. J., S. C. Sherwood, and Y. Li, 2008: Resonant response of deep convection to surface hot spots. J. Atmos. Sci., 65, 276-286.
94. Russell, P. B., L. Pfister, and H. B. Selkirk, 1993: The tropical experiment of the Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange Project (STEP): Science objectives, operations, and summary findings. J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8563-8589.
95. Saito, K., and T. Kato, 1999: The Meteorological Research Institute mesoscale nonhydrostatic model (in Japanese). Meteorology Research Note 196, Meteorological Society of Japan, Tokyo, Japan, 169-195.
96. Saito, K., T. Keenan, G. Holland, and K. Puri, 2001: Numerical simulation of the diurnal evolution of tropical island convection over the Maritime Continent. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 378-400.
97. Schafer, R., P. T. May, T. D. Keenan, K. McGuffie, W. L. Ecklund, P. E. Johnston, and K. S. Gage, 2001: Boundary layer development over a tropical island during the Maritime Continent Thunderstorm Experiment. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 2163-2179.
98. Schumann, U., 2005: TROCCINOX-Tropical Convection, Cirrus and Nitrogen Oxides Experiment: Overview. Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 7, Abstract 11180.
99. Sherwood, S. C., and A. E. Dessler, 2000: On the control of stratospheric humidity. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2513-2516.
100. Sherwood, S. C., and A. E. Dessler, 2001: A model for transport across the tropical tropopause. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 765-779.
101. Sherwood, S. C., T. Horinouchi, and H. A. Zeleznik, 2003: Convective impact of temperatures observed near the tropical tropopause. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 1847-1856.
102. Simpson, J., T. D. Keenan, B. Ferrier, R. H. Simpson, and G. J. Holland, 1993: Cumulus mergers in the maritime continent region. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 51, 73-99.
103. Skamarock, W. C., J. B. Klemp, J. Dudhia, D. O. Gill, D. M. Barker, W. Wang, and J. G. Powers, 2007: A description of the Advanced Research WRF Version 2. NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-468 + STR, NCAR, Boulder, CO, 100 pp.
104. Skinner, T., and N. Tapper, 1994: Preliminary sea breeze studies over Bathurst and Melville Islands, northern Australia, as part of the Island Thunderstorm Experiment (ITEX). Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 53, 77-94.
105. Stauffer, D. R., and N. Seaman, 1990: Use of four-dimensional data assimilation in a limited-area mesoscale model. Part I: Experiments with synoptic-scale data. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1250-1277.
106. Steiner, M., R. A. Houze, and S. E. Yuter, 1995: Climatological characterization of three-dimensional storm structure from operational radar and rain gauge data. J. Appl. Meteor., 34, 1978-2007.
107. Teitelbaum, H., M. Moustaoui, C. Basdevant, and J. R. Holton, 2000: An alternative mechanism explaining the hygropause formation in tropical regions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 221-224.
108. Thompson, G., R. M. Rasmussen, and K. Manning, 2004: Explicit forecasts of winter precipitation using an improved bulk microphysics scheme. Part I: Description and sensitivity analysis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132, 519-542.
109. Thompson, G., P. R. Field, R. M. Rasmussen, and W. D. Hall, 2008: Explicit forecasts of winter precipitation using an improved bulk microphysics scheme. Part II. Implementation of a new snow parameterization. Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 5095-5115.
110. Thuburn, J., and G. C. Craig, 2002: On the temperature structure of the tropical substratosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4017, doi:10.1029/2001JD000448.
111. Tsuda, T., M. V. Ratnam, P. T. May, M. J. Alexander, R. A. Vincent, and A. MacKinnon, 2004: Characteristics of gravity waves with short vertical wavelengths observed with radiosonde and GPS occultation during DAWEX (Darwin Area Wave Experiment). J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20S03,doi:10.1029/2004JD004946.
112. Vaughan, G., C. Schiller, A. R. MacKenzie, K. Bower, T. Peter, H. Schlager, N. R. P. Harris, and P. T. May, 2008: SCOUT-O3/ACTIVE: High-altitude aircraft measurements around deep tropical convection. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 89, 647-662.
113. Vomel, H., S. J. Oltmans, D. Kley, and P. J. Crutzen, 1995: New evidence for the stratospheric dehydration mechanism in the equatorial Pacific. Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 3235-3238.
114. Webster, P. J., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1991: The Equatorial Mesoscale Experiment (EMEX): An overview. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 72, 1481-1505.
115. Whiteway, J., and Coauthors, 2004: Anatomy of cirrus clouds: Results from the Emerald airborne campaigns. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24102, doi:10.1029/2004GL021201.
116. Wilson, D. R., and S. P. Ballard, 1999: A microphysically based precipitation scheme for the UK Meteorological Office Unified Model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125, 1607-1636.
117. Wilson, J. W., G. B. Foote, N. A. Crook, J. C. Frankhauser, C. G. Wade, J. D. Tuttle, C. K. Mueller, and S. K. Krueger, 1992: The role of boundary-layer convergence zones and horizontal rolls in the initiation of thunderstorms: A case study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 1785-1815.
118. Wilson, J. W., R. E. Carbone, J. D. Tuttle, and T. D. Keenan, 2001: Tropical island convection in the absence of significant topography. Part II: Nowcasting storm evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 1637-1655.
119. Zhou, X. L., A. Geller, and M. H. Zhang, 2001: Tropical cold point tropopause characteristics derived from ECMWF reanalyses and soundings. J. Climate, 14, 1823-1838.
120. Zöger, M., and Coauthors, 1999: Fast in situ stratospheric hygrometers: A new family of balloon-borne and airborne Lyman à photofragment fluorescence hygrometers. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 1807-1816.