Fate and degradation of POP-hexachlorocyclohexane

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 39, Issue 8, 2009, Pages 655-695

  Bhatt, Praveena ^a   Kumar, M Suresh ^a   Chakrabarti, Tapan ^a  

^a NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

Author keywords

HCH (lindane); Biodegradation; Contamination; Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH); Persistent organic pollutant (POP)

Indexed keywords

BIOTIC DEGRADATION; CONTAMINATED SITES; CONTAMINATION LEVELS; DELETERIOUS EFFECTS; GLOBAL COMMUNITY; HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE (HCH); HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANES; HUMAN HEALTH; LEACHATES; MICROBIAL DEGRADATION; ORGANIC POLLUTION; PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANT (POP); RESEARCH NEEDS;

BIOCHEMISTRY; BIODEGRADATION; BIOREMEDIATION; CONTAMINATION; CYCLOHEXANE; DEGRADATION; INSECTICIDES; ISOMERS; MICROBIOLOGY;

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS;

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR; ALDRIN; ALICYCLIC COMPOUND; ALPHA HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; AMINOTRANSFERASE; BETA GLOBULIN; BETA HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; DELTA HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; DRINKING WATER; ENZYME; FRUCTOSE BISPHOSPHATE ALDOLASE; GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE; HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M; LINDANE; ORGANOCHLORINE INSECTICIDE; TOXIC SUBSTANCE; TRICHLOROBENZENE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

BIODEGRADATION; BIOREMEDIATION; CONTAMINATED LAND; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; HCH; HEALTH IMPACT; INDUSTRIAL EMISSION; MICROBIAL ACTIVITY; ORGANIC POLLUTANT; PUBLIC HEALTH;

ACUTE TOXICITY; AEROBIC METABOLISM; AIR POLLUTION; AIR SAMPLING; AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; ANAEROBIC METABOLISM; ANTIBODY RESPONSE; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIUM ISOLATE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BIOACCUMULATION; BIOREACTOR; BIOREMEDIATION; BIRD; CARCINOGENICITY; CATABOLISM; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; COMA; CONTAMINATION; CONVULSION; CULTURE MEDIUM; DIETARY INTAKE; ECOSYSTEM; EEG ABNORMALITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL; FISH; FOOD CONTAMINATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE IDENTIFICATION; GLUCOSURIA; GRAND MAL EPILEPSY; HEADACHE; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; HYDROLYSIS; IMMUNOTOXICITY; INTRAHEPATIC BILE DUCT; INVERTEBRATE; ISOMER; KIDNEY TUBULE DISORDER; LANDFILL LEACHATE; LIPID SOLUBILITY; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER NECROSIS; LIVER TOXICITY; LIVER WEIGHT; MAMMAL; MICROBIAL DEGRADATION; MINERALIZATION; MYOCLONUS SEIZURE; NEPHROTOXICITY; NERVE CONDUCTION DISORDER; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; ORGANIC POLLUTION; PARESTHESIA; PLANT; POLLUTANT; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; RECEPTOR BINDING; REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY; REVIEW; SAMPLING; SEDIMENT; SEIZURE; SLUDGE; SOIL POLLUTION; SOLUBILITY; SPHINGOMONAS PAUCIMOBILIS; TOXICITY; VEGETATION; VERTIGO; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER SAMPLING; WILDLIFE;

EID: 69249093087     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: 15476537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643380701798306     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsWeb site. (2006). Available at: http://www.pops.int.
2. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2006). Persistent organic pollutants. Available at: http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/.
3. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). Review of strategies and policies for air pollution abatement. Available at: http://www.unece.org (accessed November 14, 2006).
4. Commission for Environmental Co-operation (CEC). North American Regional Action Plan (NARAP) on lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Available at: http://www.cec.org (accessed November 30, 2006).
5. Li, Y. F. (1999). Global technical hexachlorocyclohexane usage and its contamination consequences in the environment: From 1948 to 1997. Sci. Total Environ., 232, 121-158.
6. Safe, S. H. (1998). Benzene hexachloride. In Othmer, K. (ed.). Encyclopedia of chemical technology. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
7. Willett, C. L., Ulrich, E. M., and Hites, R. A. (1998). Differential toxicity and environmental fates of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 2197-2201 .
8. Metcalf, R. L. (1955). Organic insecticides, their chemistry and mode of action. New York: Interscience.
9. International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC). (1983). In Izmerov N.F. (ed.). Scientific reviews of Soviet literature on toxicity and hazards of chemicals. Lindane, 40. Geneva: United Nations Environmental Program.
10. Kumari, R., Subudhi, S., Suar, M., Dhingra, G., Raina, V., Dogra, C., Lal, S., Meer, J. R., Holliger, C., and Lal, R. (2002). Cloning and characterization of lingenes responsible for the degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by Sphingomonas paucimobilis Strain B90. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68, 6021- 6028.
11. Wania, F., and Haugen, J.-E. (1999). Long-term measurements of wet deposition and precipitation scavenging of hexachlorocyclohexanes in Southern Norway. Environ. Pollution., 105, 381-386.
12. Kalantzi, O. I., Alcock, R. E., Johnston, P. A., Santillo, D., Stringer, R. L., Thomas, G. O., and Jones, K. C. (2001). The global distribution of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in butter. Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 1013-1018.
13. Cerkvenik, V., Doganoe, D.Z., and Jan, J. (2000). Evidence of some trace elements, organochlorines pesticides and PCBs in Slovenian cow's milk. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 38, 155-160.
14. Noren, K., and Meironyte, D. (2000). Organochlorine and organobromine contaminants in Swedish human milk in perspective of past 20-30 years. Chemosphere, 44, 1111-1123.
15. Simonich, S.L., and Hites, R.A. (1995). Global distribution of persistent organochlorine compounds. Science, 269, 1851-1854.
16. Voldner, E.C., and Li, Y.F. (1995). Global usage of selected persistent organochlorines. Sci. Total Environ., 160/161, 201-210.
17. Huang, H.X. (1989). Discussion on environmental contaminant and related problems caused by organochlorine pesticides. Sci. Manage. Pesticid., 2, 26- 29.
18. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (2005, August). Public health statement for hexachlorocyclohexane. Available at: http:/www. atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs43.html (accessed 2006).
19. Walker, K., Vallero, D. A., and Lewis, R.G. (1999). Factors influencing the distribution of lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexanes in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 4373-4378.
20. Cao, H., Tao, S., Xu, F., Coveney, R. M., Cao, J., Li, B., Liu, W., Wang, X., Hu, J., Shen, W., Qin, B., and Sun, R. (2004). Multimedia fate model for hexachlorocyclohexane in Tiajin, China. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 2126-2132.
21. Chaudhary, P., Kumar, M., Khangarot, S., and Kumar, A. (2006). Degradation and detoxification of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by Pseudomonas aeruginosa ITRC-5. Int. Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 57, 107-113.
22. Middeldorp, P. J. M., Jasper, M., Zehender, A. J. B., and Schraa, J. (1996). Biotransformation of α-, β-, γ - and δ-hexachlorocyclohexane under methanogenic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 2345-2349.
23. Lodha, B., Bhatt, P., Suresh Kumar, M., Vaidya, A.N., Mudliar, S., Killedar, D.J., and Chakrabarti, T. (2007). Bioisomerization kinetics of γ -HCH and biokinetics of Pseudomonas aeruginosa degrading technical HCH. Biochem. Engg. J., 35, 12-19.
24. Harner, T., Shoeib, M., Kozma, M., Gobas, F. A. P. C., and Li, S. M. (2005). Hexachlorocyclohexane and endosulfan in urban, rural and high altitude air samples in the Fraser valley, British Columbia: Evidence for trans-pacific transport. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 724-731.
25. Bhaskara, B., David, S.H., Ferguson, J.F., Magar, V.S., and Puhakka, J.A. (1998). Toxic chlorinated compounds: Fate and biodegradation in anaerobic digestors. Water Environment Research Foundation, FAO (SDR) viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153, Rome.
26. Wania F, Mackay D. (1996). Tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. Control strategies for these contaminants will require a better understanding of how they move around the globe. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(9), 390-396.
27. Shen, L., Wania, F., Lei, Y. D., Teixeira, C., Muir, D. C., G., and Bidleman, T. F. (2005). Atmospheric distribution and long-range transport behavior of organochlorine pesticides in North America. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39(2), 409- 420.
28. Beurskens, J. E. M., Stams, A.J.M., Zehender, A. J. B., and Bachmann, A. (1991). Relative biochemical reactivity of three hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe., 21, 128-136.
29. Oliveria, R. M., and Brilhante, O. M. (1996). Hexachlorocyclohexane contamination in an urban area of Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. Environ. Int., 22, 289-294.
30. Lichtenstein, E.P., and Schulz, K.R. (1958). Persistence of some chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides as influenced by soil types, rate of application and temperature. J. Econ. Entomol., 52, 124-131.
31. Nash, R.G., and Woolson, E.A. (1967). Persistence of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in soil. Science., 157, 924-927.
32. Das, A.C., Chakravarty, A., Sukul, P., and Mukherjee, D. (2003). Effect of HCH and fenvalerate on growth and distribution of microorganisms in relation to persistence of the insecticides in the rhizosphere soils of wet land rice. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 70, 1059-1064.
33. Sarkar, A., Nagarajan, R., Chaphadkar, S., Pal, S., and Singbal, S.Y. S. (1997). Contamination of organochlorine pesticides in sediments from the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India. Water Research, 31, 195-200.
34. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). (1991). Environmental health criteria 124: Lindane. Geneva: World Health Organization.
35. Agnihotri, N.P., Pandey, S.Y., Jain, S.K., and Shrivastava, K.P. (1977). Persistence of aldrin, dieldrin, lindane, heptachlor and p,p'-DDT in soil. J. Entomol. Res., 1, 89-91.
36. Virchenko, E.P., and Bobovnikova, T.I. (1985). Behaviour of HCH isomers in soil (Russian) Tr. Inst. Eksp. Metorol. Ser. Zagrayas. Prir. Sred., 13, 18-23.
37. Voerman, S., and Besemer, A.F.H. (1970). Residues of dieldrin, lindane, DDT, and parathion in a light sandy soil after repeated application throughout a period of 15 years. J. Agric. Food Chem., 18, 717-719.
38. Voerman, S., and Besemer, A.F.H. (1975). Residues of dieldrin, lindane, DDT, and parathion in a light sandy soil and their uptake by grass. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 13, 501-505.
39. International Atomic Energy Agency. (1988). Isotope techniques for studying the fate of persistent pesticides in the tropics. IAEA-TELDOC-476, Vienna, Italy.
40. Bhatt, P., Kumar, M.S., Mudliar, S., and Chakrabarti, T. (2007). Biodegradation of chlorinated compounds-a review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 165-198.
41. Jagnow, G., Haider, K., and Ellwardt, B. (1977). Anaerobic dechlorination and degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane in anaerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria. Arch. Microbiol., 115, 285-292.
42. Senoo, K., and Wada, H. (1989). Isolation and identification of an aerobic γ -HCH degrading bacterium from soil. Soil. Sci. Plant. Nutr., 35, 79-87.
43. Johri, A. K., Dua, M., Tuteja, D., Saxena, R., Saxena, D. M., and Lal, R. (1998). Degradation of alpha, beta, gamma and delta hexachlorocyclohexanes by Sphingomonas paucimobilis. Biotechnol Lett., 20, 885-887.
44. Gupta, A., Kaushik, C. P., and Kaushik, A. (2001). Degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in strains of Alcaligenes faecalis isolated from a contaminated site. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 66, 794-800.
45. Commission for Environmental Cooperation. Decision Document on Lindane. (2000, April). Available at: http://www.cec.org/pubs docs/documents/ index.cfm?varlan=english&ID=1032 (accessed 2006).
46. Solomon, G.M., and Weiss, P.M. (2002). Chemical contaminants in breast milk. Time trends and regional variability. Environ. Health. Perspect., 110, A339- A347.
47. Dugast, P. (1980). Cheminement du lindane dans une chaine trophique terrestre de laboratoire. Meded. Fac. Landbouwwet. Rijksuniv. Gent., 45, 905-914.
48. Tanabe, S., Tanake, H., and Tatsukawa, R. (1984). Polychlorobiphenyls, DDT and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in the Western North pacific ecosystem. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 13, 731-738.
49. Nigam, S.K., Karnik, A.B., Majumdar, S.K., Vishweshwariah, K., Raju, G.S., Bai, K.M., Lakkad, B.C., Thakore, K.N., and Chatterjee, B.B. (1986). Serum hexachlorocyclohexane residues in workers engaged in HCH manufacturing plant. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health., 57, 315-320.
50. Joy, R.M., Walby, W.F., Stark, L.G., and Albertson, T.E. (1995). Lindane blocks GABAA-mediated inhibition and modulates pyramidal cell excitability in the rat hippocampal slice. Neurotoxicology, 16, 217-228.
51. Smith, A.G. (1991). Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide. Classes of pesticides. In: Hayes, W.J., and Laws, E.R. (eds.). Handbook of pesticide toxicology. San Diego, Calif.:, Academic Press, pp. 731-915.
52. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Toxicological profile for alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-hexachlorocyclohexane. Atlanta, Ga.: Clement and Associates.
53. Gupta, P.C. (1975). Neurotoxicity of chronic chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide poisoning: A clinical study in man. Indian J. Med. Res., 63, 901-905.
54. Nag, D., Singh, G.C., and Senon, S. (1977). Epilepsy epidemic due to benzenehexachloride. Trop. Geogr. Med., 29, 229-232.
55. Srinivasan, K., Ramesha, H.P., and Radhakrishnamurthy, R. (1984). Renal tubular dysfunction caused by dietary hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers. J. Environ. Sci. Health, B19, 453-466.
56. Rajamanickam, C., and Padmanabhan, G. (1974). Biochemical effect of benzenehexachloride. Indian J. Biochem. Biophys., 11, 119-121.
57. Srinivasan, K., and Radhakrishnamurthy, R. (1988). Biochemical changes produced by β- and γ -hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in albino rats. J. Environ. Sci. Health, B23, 367-386.
58. Cornacoff, J.B., Lauer, L.D., House, R.V., Tucker, A.N., Thurmond, L.M., Vos, J.G., Working, P.K., and Dean, J.H. (1988). Fundament. Appl. Toxicol., 11, 293-299.
59. Prasad, A.K., Pant, S.C., Kumar, R., and Shrivastava, S.P. (1995). Human. Exp. Toxicol., 14, 484-488.
60. Silverstroni, L., and Palleschi, S. (1999). Effects of organochlorinne xenobiotics on human spermatozoa. Chemophere, 39, 1249-1252.
61. Srinivasan, K., Mahadevappa, K. L., and Radhakrishnamurthy, R. (1991). Toxicity of beta and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane in rats of different ages. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 47, 623-627.
62. Muralidhara, M.K., Krishnakumari, M.K., and Majumdar, S.K. (1979). Effects of carriers on the oral toxicity of lindane (γ -BHC) to albino rats. J. Food Sci. Technol., 16, 105-107.
63. Chen, C-P. (1968). The effect of a protein deficient diet on the acute oral toxicity of lindane. Ph.D. thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.
64. Barke, A. (1950). Toxicity of the gamma-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane. Tier̈ artztl Umsch., 5, 61-63.
65. Doisy, E.A., and Bocklage, B.C. (1950). Inositol and the toxicity of four isomers of benzenehexachloride for the rat. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 71, 613- 616.
66. Steinmetz, R., Young, P.C.M., Caperell-Grant, A., Gize, E.A., Madhukar, B.V., Ben-Johnathan, N., and Bigsby, R.M. (1996). Novel estrogenic action of the pesticide residue β-HCH in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res., 56, 5403- 5409.
67. Bigsby, R.M., Caperell-Grant, A., and Madhukar, B.V. (1997). Xenobiotics released from fat during fasting produce estrogenic effects in ovariectomized mice. Cancer Res., 57, 865-869.
68. Dikshith, T.S.S., Dutta, K.K., Kushwah, H.S., and Raizada, R.B. (1978). Histopathological and biochemical changes in guinea pigs after repeated dermal exposure to benzene hexachloride (BHC). Toxicology, 10, 55-58.
69. Desi, I., Dura, G., and Szolobodnyik, J. (1977). Testing of pesticide toxicity in tissue culture. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 40, 1053-1066.
70. Barth, J.A.C., Steidle, D., Kuntz, D., Gocht, T., Mouvet, C., von Tumpling, W., Lobe, I., Lagenhoff, A., Albrechtsen, H.-J., Janniche, G.S., and Morasche, B. (2007). Deposition, persistence and turnover of pollutants: First results from the EU project aquaterra for selected river basins and aquifers. Sci. Total Environ., 376, 40-50.
71. Grana-Concha, E., Carou-Turnes, M.I., Lorenz-Muniategui, S., Mahia-Lopez, P., Rodriguez-D.P., and Fernandez-Fernandez, E. (2006). Evaluation of HCH isomers and metabolites in soils, leachates, river water, and sediments of a highly contaminated area. Chemosphere, 64, 588-595.
72. Ding, H., Li, X.G., Liu, H., Wang, J., Shen, W.R., Sun, Y.C., and Shao, X.L. (2005). Persistent organochlorine residues in sediments of Haihe river and Dagu drainage river in Tianjin, China. J. Environ. Sci. (China), 17, 731- 735.
73. Singh, K.P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., and Takroo, R. (2005). Distribution of persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in Gomti river, India. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 74, 146-154.
74. Caldas, E.D., Coelho, R., Souza, L.C.K.R., and Silva, S.C. (1999). Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment and fish of Paranoa Lake of Brasilia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 62, 199-206.
75. Nayak, A.K., Raha, R., and Das, A.K. (1995). Organochlorine pesticide residues in the middle stream of Ganga river, India. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 54, 68-75.
76. Hinckley, D.A., Bidleman, T.F., and Rice, C.P. (1991). Atmospheric organochlorine pollutants and air-sea exchange of hexachlorocyclohexane in the Bering and Chukchi seas. J. Geophysical. Res., 96, 7201-7213.
77. Scheyer, A., Graeff, C., Morville, S., Mirabel, P., and Millet, M. (2005). Analysis of some organochlorine pesticides in an urban atmosphere (Strausbourg, East of France). Chemosphere, 58, 1517-1524.
78. Millet, M., Wortham, H., Sanusi, A., and Mirabel, P. (1997). Atmospheric contamination by pesticides: Determination of the liquid, gaseous and particulate phases. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 4, 172-180.
79. Li, J., Zhang, G., Guo, L., Xu, W., Li, X., Lee, C.S.L., Ding, A., and Wang, T. (2007). Organochlorine pesticides in the atmosphere of Guanzhou and Hong Kong: Regional sources and long range transport. Atmos. Environ., 41, 3889- 3903.
80. Jaraczewska, K., Lulek, J., Covaci, A., Voorspoels, S., Kaluba-Skotarczak, A., Drews, K., and Schepens, P. (2006). Distribution of PCBs, OCPs, and PBDE in human umbilical chord, serum, maternal serum and milk from Weilkopolska region, Poland. Sci. Total Environ., 372, 30-31.
81. Khajani, N., and Sim, M.S. (2006). Reproductive outcomes of maternal contamination with cyclodiene insecticides, hexachlorobenzene and β- benzenehexachloride. Sci. Total Environ., 368, 557-564.
82. Kang, Y-S., Matsuda, M., Kawano, M., Wakimoto, T., and Min, B-Y. (1997). Organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in human adipose tissue from western Kyungnam, Korea. Chemosphere, 35, 2107-2117.
83. Nasir, K., Bilto, Y.Y., and Al-Shuraiki, Y. (1998). Residues of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in human milk of Jordanian women. Environ. Pollut., 99, 141-148.
84. Wu, W.Z., Schramm, K-W, Henkelmann, B., Xu, Y., Yediler, A., and Kettrup, A. (1997). PCDD/Fs, PCBs, HCHs, and HCB in sediments and soils of Ya-Er lake area in China: Results on residual levels and correlation to the organic carbon and particle size. Chemosphere, 34, 191-202.
85. Gong, Z.M., Xu, F.L., Dawson, R., Cao, J., Liu, W.X., Li, B.G., Shen, W.R., Zhang, W.J., Quin, B.P., Sun, R., and Tao, S. (2004). Residues of HCH isomers and their characteristics in soil in the Tianjin area, China. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 46, 432-437.
86. Prakash, O., Suar, M., Raina, V., Dogra, C., Pal, R., and Lal, R. (2004). Residues of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in soil and water samples from Delhi and adjoining areas. Curr. Sci., 87, 73-77.
87. Rissato, S.R., Galhiane, M.S., Ximenes, V.F., de Andrade, R.M.B., Talamoni, L.B.J., Libanio, M., de Almeida, M.V., Apon, B.M., Cavalari, A.A. (2006). Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in soil and water samples in the Northeastern part of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Chemosphere, 65, 1949- 1958.
88. Zhou, R., Zhu, L., Yang, K., and Chen, Y. (2006). Distribution of organochlorine pesticides in surface water and sediments from Qiantang river, China. J. Haz. Mat., 137, 68-75.
89. Agnihotri, N.P., Kulshrestha, G., Gajbhiye, V.T., Mohapatra, S.P., and Singh, S.B. (1996). Organochlorine insecticide residues in agricultural soils of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Environ. Monit. Assess., 40, 279-288.
90. Zhang, G., Parker, A., House, A., Mai, B., Li, X., Kang, Y., and Wang, Z. (2002). Sedimentary records of DDT and HCH in Pearl River delta, South China. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 3671-3677.
91. Osibanjo, O., Biney, C., Calamari, D., Kaba, N., Mbome, I.L., Naeve, H., Ochumba, P.B.O., and Saad, M.A.H. (2002). Chlorinated hydrocarbon substances. FAO of the United Nations, FAO Corporate Document Repository, Rome.
92. Edwards, C.A. (1973). Persistent pesticides in the environment. 2nd ed. Cleveland, Ohio: CRC Press, 170.
93. Iwata, H., Tanabe, S., Sakai, N., Nishimura, A., and Tatsukawa, R. (1994). Geographical distribution of persistent organochlorines in air, water, sediments from Asia and Oceania, and their implications for global redistribution from lower latitudes. Environ. Pollut., 85, 15-33.
94. Singh, K.P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., and Sinha, S. (2005). Pesistent organochlorine pesticides residues in alluvial ground water aquifers of Gangetic plains, India. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 74, 162-169.
95. Mohapatra, S.P., Kumar, M., Gajbhiye, V.T., and Agnihotri, N.P. (1995). Groundwater contamination by organochlorine insecticide residues in a rural area in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Environ. Monit. Assess., 35, 155-164.
96. Factors affecting the occurrence and enantiomeric degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in Northern and Temperate aquatic systems. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 20, 2690-2698.
97. Chernyak, S.M., McConnell, L.L., and Rice, C.P. (1995). Fate of some chlorinated hydrocarbons in Arctic and far eastern ecosystems in the Russian Federation. Sci. Total. Environ., 160-161, 75-85.
98. Kabbany, S.E., Rashed, M.M., and Zaye, M.A. (2000). Monitoring of some pesticide levels in some water supplies and agricultural land in El-Haram, Giza (A.R.E). J. Haz. Mat. A., 72, 11-21.
99. Dua, V.K., Kumari, R., Johri, R.K., Ojha, V.P., Shukla, R.P., and Sharma, V.P. (1998). Organochlorine insecticide residues in water from five lakes in Nainital (U.P), India. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 60, 209-215.
100. Nwankwoala, A.V., and Osibanjo, O. (1992). Baseline levels of some selected organochlorine pesticides in surface waters in Ibadan (Nigeria) by electron capture gas chromatography. Sci. Total. Environ., 19, 179-190.
101. Mugachia, J.C., Kanja, L., and Gitau, F. (1992). Organochlorine pesticide residues in fish from Lake Naivasha and Tana River, Kenya. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 49, 207-210.
102. Li, Y.F., McMillan, A., and Scholtz, M.T. (1996). Global HCH usage with 1 × 1 longitude/latitude resolution. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 3525-3533.
103. Murayama, H., Takase, Y., Mitobe, H., Mukai, H., Ohzeki, T., Shimzu, K., and Kitayama, Y. (2003). Seasonal change of persistent organic pollutant concentrations in air at Niigata, Japan. Chemosphere, 52, 683-694.
104. Waite, D.T., Gurprasad, N.P., Sproull, J.F., Quiring, D.V., and Kotylak, M.W. (2001). Atmospheric movements of lindane from canola fields planted with treated seeds. J. Environ. Qual., 30, 768-775.
105. Shen, L., Wania, F., Lei, Y.D., Teixeira, C., Muir, C.G., and Bidleman, T.F. (2004). Hexachlorocyclohexane in the North American atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 965-975.
106. Brorstromlunden, E., Lindskog, A., and Mowrer, J. (1994). Concentrations and fluxes of organic compounds in the atmosphere of the Swedish west coast. Atmos. Environ., 28, 3605-3615.
107. Garmouma, M., and Poissant, L. 2004. Occurrence, temperature and seasonal trends of α- and γ -HCH in air (Quebec, Canada). Atmos. Environ., 38, 369- 382.
108. Harner, T., Shoeib, M., Diamond, M., Stern, G., and Rosenberg, B. (2004). Using passive air samplers to assess urban-rural trends for persistent organic pollutants, 1. Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 4474-4483.
109. Ma, J., Daggupathy, S., Harner, T., and Li, Y. (2003). Impacts of lindane usage in the Canadian prairies on the Great Lakes ecosystem. 1. Coupled atmospheric transport model and modeled concentrations in air and soil. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 3774-3781.
110. Ma, J., Hung, H., and Blanchard, P. (2004). How do climate fluctuations affect persistent organic pollutant distribution in North America? Evidence from a decade of monitoring. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 2538-2543.
111. Li, Y.F., Bidelman, T.F., Barrie, L.A., and McConell, L.L. (1998). Global hexachlorocyclohexane trends and their impact on the Arctic atmospheric environment. Geophysical Research Lett., 25, 39-42.
112. Bennett, S. M. (2001). Lindane. Available at: http://www.the-piedpiper. co.uk/th13(j).htm (accessed 2006).
113. Saintz, M.J., Gonzalez-Penalta, B., and Vilarino, A. (2006). Effects of hexachlorocyclohexane on rhizosphere fungal propagules and root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhzal fungi in Plantago lanceolata. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 57, 83-90.
114. Wang, X.P., Yao, T.D., Cong, Z.Y., Kang, S.C., and Zhang, Y. (2007). Distribution of persistent organic pollutants in soil and grasses around Mt. Qomolangma, China. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 52, 153-162.
115. Calvelo Pereira, R., Camps-Arbestian, M., Rodriguez-Garrido, B., Marcias, F., and Monterroso, C. (2006). Behaviour of α-, β-, γ -, and δ- hexachlorocyclohexane in soil plant system of a contaminated site. Environ. Pollut., 144, 210-217.
116. Standley, L.J., and Sweeney, B.W. (1995). Organochlorine pesticides in stream mayflies and terrestrial vegetation of undisturbed tropical catchments exposed to long-range atmospheric transport. J. North Am. Benthological Soc., 14, 38-49.
117. Barriada-Pereira, M., Gonzalez-Castro, M.J., Muniategui-Lorenzo, S., Lopez- Mahia, P., Prada-Rodriguez, D., and Fernandez-Fernandez, E. (2005). Organochlorine pesticide accumulation and degradation products in vegetation samples of a contaminated area in Galacia (N.W. Spain). Chemosphere, 58, 1571-1578.
118. Nakata, H., Hirakawa, Y., Kawazoe, M., Nakabo, T., Arizono, K., Abe, S.-I., Kitano, T., Shimada, H., Watanabe, I., Li, W., and Ding, X. (2005). Concentration and composition of organochlorine contaminants in sediments, soils, crustaceans, fishes, and birds collected from Lake Tai, Hangzhou Bay and Shanghai City region, China. Environ. Pollut., 133, 415-429.
119. Nigam, S.K., Karnik, A.B., Chattopadhayay, P., Lakkad, B.C., Venkaiah, K., and Kashyap, S.K. (1993). Chemical and biochemical investigations to evolve early diagonosis in workers involved in the manufacture of hexachlorocyclohexane. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 65, S193-S196.
120. Bouwer, G., Blanchard, O., Momas, I., and Seta, N. (2006). Pesticide exposure of non-occupationally exposed subjects compared to some occupational exposure: A French pilot study. Sci. Total Environ., 366, 74-91.
121. Smeds, A., and Saukko, P. (2001). Identification and quantification of polychlorinated biphenyls and some endocrine disrupting pesticides in human adipose tissue from Finland. Chemosphere, 44, 1463-1471.
122. Egan, H., Goulding, R., Roborn, J., and Tatton, J. O. (1965). Organochlorine pesticide residues in human fat and human milk. Brit. Med. J., 2, 66-69.
123. Abbott, D.C., Goulding, R., and Tatton, J. O. (1968). Organochlorine pesticide residues in human fat in Great Britain. Brit. Med. J., 3, 149-151.
124. Bhattu, R.S., Singh, B., and Kang, B.K. 2004. Contamination of liquid milk and butter with pesticide residues in the Ludhiana district of Punjab State, India. Ecotox. Environ. Safety, 59, 324-331.
125. Schecter, A., Furst, P., Furst, C., Groebel, W., Kolesnikov, S., Savchenkov, M., Beim, A., Boldonov, A., Trubitsum, E., and Vlasov, B. (1990). Levels of dioxins, dibenzofurans and other chlorinated xenobiotics in human milk from the Soviet Union. Chemosphere, 20, 927-934.
126. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (2006, August 2). Soft drinks still unsafe for drinking. Press release. Available at: http://www.cseindia.org. (accessed 2006).
127. Lazaro, R., Herrera, A., Arino, A., Conchella, M.P., and Bayarri, S. (1996). Organochlorine pesticide residues in total diet samples from Aragon (Eastern Spain). J. Agric. Food Chem., 44, 2742-2747.
128. Sharma, P., Raina, V., Kumari, R., Malhotra, S., Dogra, C., Kumari, H., Kohler, H.-P. E., Buser, H.-R., Holliger, C., and Lal, R. (2006). Haloalkane dehalogenase LinB is responsible for beta-delta-hexachlorocyclohexane transformation in Sphingobium indicum B90A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72(9), 5720-5727.
129. Ahuja, A.K., and Awasti, M.D. (1993). Contamination of rice and wheat with residues of HCH and DDT. Pestic. Res. J., 5, 83-86.
130. Ngabe, B., Bidleman, T.F., and Falconer, R.L. (1993). Base hydrolysis of α and γ -hexachlorocyclohexane. Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 1930-1933.
131. Liu, X., Peng, P.A., Fu, J., and Huang, W. (2003). Effects of FeS on the transformation kinetics of γ -hexachlorocyclohexane. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 1822-1828.
132. Heupt, W. (1983). Determination of the hydrolytic stability of lindane. Unpublished report, Celamerck Ingelheim, submitted to WHO by CEIL.
133. Gorrido-Rodriguez, B., Arbestain, M.C., Monterroso, M.C., and Marcias, F. (2004). Reductive dechlorination of α, β, γ, and δ-hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by hydroxocobalamin in the presence of either dithiothreitol or titanium (III) citrate as reducing agents. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 5046-5052.
134. Miller, C.T., and Pedit, J.A. (1992). Use of a reactive surface-diffussion model to describe apparent sorption-desorption hysteresis and abiotic degradation of lindane in a sub-surface material. Environ. Sci. Technol., 26, 1417-1427.
135. Brubaker, W.W., and Hites, R.A. (1998). Hydroxyl reaction kinetics of gasphase of α and γ -hexachlorocyclohexane and hexachlorobenzene. Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 766-769.
136. Marks, T.S., Allpress, J.D., and Maule, A. (1989). Dehalogenation of lindane by a variety of porphyrins and corrins. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55, 1258- 1261.
137. Saleh, F.Y., Dickson, K.L., and Rodgers, J.H. (1982). Fate of lindane in aquatic environment: Rate constants of physical and chemical processes. J. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 1, 289-297.
138. Kotzias, D., Nitz, S., and Korte, F. (1981). Light-induced total breakdown of organic molecules adsorbed on silica gel. Chemosphere, 10, 415-422.
139. Sahu, S.K., Patnaik, K.K., Bhuyan, S., and Sethunathan, N. (1993). Degradation of soil applied isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane by a Pseudomonas sp. Soil Biol. Biochem., 25, 387-390.
140. Manickam, N., Mau, M., and Schlomann, M. (2006). Characterization of the novel HCH-degradaing strain, Microbacterium sp. ITRC1. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 69, 580-588.
141. Okeke, B,C., Siddique, T., Arbestain, M.C., and Frankenberger, W.T. (2002). Biodegradation of γ -hexachlorocyclohexane in water and a soil slurry by Pandoraeaspecies. J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 2548-2555.
142. Nalin, R., Simonet, P., Vogel, M., and Normand, P. (1999). Rhodantobacter lindaniclasticus ge. Nov., sp., nov., a lindane degrading bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 49, 19-23.
143. Nawab, A., Aleem, A., and Malik, A. (2003). Determination of organochlorinepesticides with special reference to γ -HCH degradation by Pseudomonasstrains. Bioresour. Technol., 88, 41-46.
144. Singh, B.K., Kuhad, R.C., Singh, A., Lal, R., and Tripathi, K.K. (1999). Biochemical and molecular basis of pesticide degradation by microorganisms. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 19, 197-225.
145. Heritage, A.D., and MacRae, I.C. (1977). Degradation of lindane by cell-free preparations of Clostridium sphenoides. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 3334, 222- 224.
146. Ohisa, N., Yamaguchi, M., and Kurihara, N. (1980). Lindane degradation by cell free extracts of Clostridium rectum. Arch. Microbiol., 125, 221-225.
147. Buser, H.-R., and Muller, M.D. (1995). Isomer and enantioselective degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in sewage sludge under anaerobic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29, 564-612.
148. van Eekert, M. H. A., van Ras, N. J. P., Mentink, G. H., Rijnaarts, H. H. M., Stams, A. J. M., Field, J. A., and Schraa, G. (1998). Anaerobic transformation of β- hexachlorocyclohexane by methanogenic granular sludge and soil microflora. Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 3299-3304.
149. Matsumura, F., Benzet, H.J., and Patil, K.C. (1976). Factors affecting bacterial metabolism of γ -BHC. J. Pestic. Sci., 1, 3-8.
150. Senoo, K., and Wada, H. (1989). Isolation and identification of an aerobic γ -HCH decomposing bacterium from soil. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 35, 79-87.
151. Wada, H., Senoo, K., and Takai, Y. (1989). Rapid degradation of γ -HCH in upland soil after multiple applications. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 35, 71-77.
152. Gupta, A., Kaushik, C. P., and Kaushik, A. (2001). Degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in strains of Alcaligenes faecalis isolated from a contaminated site. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 66, 794-800.
153. Bhatt, P., Kumar, M.S., and Chakrabarti, T. (2007). Assessment of bioremediation possibilities of technical grade hexachlorocyclohexane (tech-HCH) contaminated soils. J. Hazard. Mater., 143, 349-353.
154. Singh, N. (2003). Enhanced degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in rhizhosphere soil of Kochia sp. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 70, 775-782.
155. Sahu, S.K., Patnaik, K.K., Sharmila, M., and Sethunathan, N. (1990). Degradation of alpha, beta, and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56, 3620-3622.
156. Kumar, M., Chaudhary, P., Dwivedi, M., Kumar, R., Paul, D., Jain, R. K., Garg, S. K., and Kumar, A. (2005). Enhanced biodegradation of β- and δ- hexachlorocyclohexane in the presence of α- and γ -isomers in contaminated soils. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 4005-4011.
157. Moughin, C., Pericaud, C., Dubroca, J., and Asther, M. (1997). Enhanced mineralization of lindane in soils supplemented with the white rot basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Soil. Biol. Biochem., 29, 1321-1324.
158. Quintero, J.C., Moreira, M.T., Feijoo, G., and Lema, J.M. (2005). Anaerobic degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in liquid and soil slurry systems. Chemosphere, 61, 528-536.
159. Quintero, J.C., Moreira, M.T., Lema, J.M., and Feijoo, G. (2006). An anaerobic bioreactor allows efficient degradation of HCH isomers in soil slurry. Chemosphere, 63, 1005-1013.
160. Erguder, T.H., Guven, E., and Demirer, G.N. (2003). The inhibitory effects of lindane in batch and upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors. Chemosphere, 50, 165-169.
161. Bhatt, P., Kumar, M.S., Mudliar, S.N., and Chakrabarti, T. (2006). Biodegradation of tech-hexachlorocyclohexane in a upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Bioresource Technology, 97, 824-830.
162. Bhatt, P., Kumar, M.S., Mudliar, S.N., and Chakrabarti, T. (2006). Enhanced biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor using methanol as an electron donor. Bioresource Technology, 97, 824- 830.
163. Tekere, M., Nuebe, I., Read, J. S., and Zvauya, R. (2002). Biodegradation of organochlorine pesticide lindane by a sub-tropical white rot fungus in batch and packed bed bioreactor systems. Environ Technol., 23, 199-206.
164. Van Eekert, M. H. A., Van Ras, N. J. P., Mentink, G. H., Rijnaarts, H. H. M., Stams, A. J. M., Field, J. A., and Schraa, G. (1998). Anaerobic transformation of β-hexachlorocyclohexane by methanogenic granular sludge and soil microflora. Environ. Science & Technol., 32(21), 3299-3304.
165. Full scale case: Successful in situ remediation of an HCH contaminated industrial site in central Europe (The Netherlands). Available at http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu (accessed 2006).
166. Bachmann, A., Walet, P., Wijnen, W.D., de Bruin, W., Huntjens, J.L., Roelofsen, W., and Zehnder, A.J. (1988). Biodegradation of alpha and betahexachlorocyclohexane in a soil slurry under different redox conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54, 143-149.
167. Bachmann, A., de Bruin, W., Jumelet, J.C., Rijnaarts, H.H.N., and Zehnder, A.J.B. (1988). Aerobic biomineralization of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane
168. Schraa, G., Bonee, M.L., Jetten, M.S.M., van Neerven, A.R.W., Colberg, P.J., and Zehender, A.Z.B. (1986). Degradation of 1,4-dichlorobenzene by Alcaligenessp.strain A175. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 52, 1374-1381.
169. Miyauchi, K., Lee, H-S., Fukuda, M., Takagi, M., and Nagata, Y. 2002. Cloning and characterization of linR, involved in regulation of the downstream pathway for γ -hexachlorocyclohexane degradation in Sphingomonas paucimobilisUT26. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68, 1803-1807.
170. Kuritz, T., and Wolk, C.P. (1995). Use of filamentous cyanobacteria for biodegradation of organic pollutants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61, 234-236.
171. Nagata, Y., Miyauchi, K., and Takagi, M. (1999). Complete analysis of genes and enzymes for γ -hexachlorocyclohexane degradation in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. J. Industrial Microbiol. Biotechnol., 23, 380-390.
172. Tu, C.M. (1976). Utilization and degradation of lindane by soil microorganisms. Arch. Microbiol., 108, 259-263.
173. Sharma, P., Raina, V., Kumari, R., Malhotra, S., Dogra, C., Kumari, H., Kohler, H-P.E., Buser, H-R, Holliger, H., and Lal, R. (2006). Haloalkane dehalogenase LinB is responsible for β- and δ- hexachlorocyclohexane transformation in Sphingomonas indicum B90A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72, 5720-5727.
174. Nagata, Y., Prokop, Z., Sato, Y., Jerabek, P., Kumar, A., Ohtsubo, Y., Tsuda, M., and Damborsky, J. (2005). Degradation of β- hexachlorocyclohexane by haloalkane dehalogenase Lin B from Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71, 2183-2185.
175. Jagnow, G., Haider, K., and Ellwart, P.-C. (1977). Anaerobic dechlorination and degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by anaerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria. Arch. Microbiol., 115, 285-292.
176. Miyazaki, R., Sato. Y., Ito, M., Ohtsubo, Y., Nagata, Y., and Tsuda, M. (2006). Complete nucleotide sequence of an exogenously isolated plasmid, pLB1, involved in γ -hexachlorocyclohexane degradation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72, 5720-5727.
177. Imai, R., Nagata, Y., Fukuda, M., Takagi, M., and Yano, K. (1991). Molecular cloning of a Pseudomonas paucimobilis gene encoding a 17-kilodalton polypeptide that eliminates HCl molecules from γ -hexachlorocyclohexane. J. Bacteriol., 173, 6811-6819.
178. Nagata, Y., Ohtomo, R., Nariya, T., Fukuda, M., Yano, K., and Takagi, M. (1993). Cloning and sequencing of a dehalogenase gene encoding an enzyme with hydrolase activity involved in the degradation of γ - hexachlorocyclohexane in Pseudomonas paucimobilis. J. Bacteriol., 175, 6403- 6410.
179. Nagata, Y., Ohtomo, R., Miyauchi, K., Fukuda, M., Yano, K., and Takagi, M. (1994). Cloning and sequencing of a 2,5-dicjloro-2,5-chlorohexadiene- 1,4-diol dehalogenase gene encoding involved in the degradation of γ - hexachlorocyclohexane in Pseudomonas paucimobilis. J. Bacteriol., 176, 3117- 3125.
180. Miyauchi, K., Suh-, S.-K., Nagata, Y., and Takagi, M. (1998). Cloning and sequencing of a 2,5-didichlorohydroquinone reductive dehalogenase gene whose product is involved in the degradation of γ -hexachlorocyclohexane in Sphingomonas paucimobilis. J. Bacteriol., 180, 1354-1359.