Mycorrhizal networks and complex systems: Contributions of soil ecology science to managing climate change effects in forested ecosystems

Canadian Journal of Soil Science

Volumn 89, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 369-382

  Simard, Suzanne W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Climate change; Complex systems; Mycorrhizal networks; Species migrations

Indexed keywords

CARBON CYCLE; CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE EFFECT; DEGRADATION; ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; FOREST ECOSYSTEM; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; MYCORRHIZA; NUTRIENT DYNAMICS; PLANT COMMUNITY; REGENERATION; SOIL ECOSYSTEM; SPECIES DIVERSITY;

PSEUDOTSUGA; PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII;

EID: 68949149696     PISSN: 00084271     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4141/cjss08078     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Aitken, S. N., Yeaman, S., Holliday, J. A., Wang, T. and Curtis-McLane, S. 2008. Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evolutionary Applications 1: 95-111.
2. Astrup, R., Coates, K. D. and Hall, E. 2008. Recruitment limitation in forests: Lessons from an unprecedented mountain pine beetle epidemic. For. Ecol. Manage. 256: 1743-1750.
3. Baleshta K. E., Simard, S. W., Guy, R. D. and Chanway, C. P. 2005. Reducing paper birch density increases Douglas-fir growth and Armillaria root disease incidence in southern interior British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 208: 1-13.
4. Barabási, A.-L. and Albert, R. 2002. Statistical mechanics of complex networks. Rev. Modern Phys. 74: 47-97.
5. Bardgett, R. F., Anderson, J. M., Behan-Pelletier, V., Brus-saard, L., Coleman, D. C., Ettema, C., Moldenke, A., Schimel, J. P. and Walls, D. H. 2001. The influence of soil biodiversity on hydrological pathways and the transfer of materials between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecosystems 4: 421-429.
6. Barrow, C. J. 1991. Land degradation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
7. Baskin, Y. 1997. The work of nature: how the diversity of life sustains us. Island Press, Washington, DC.
8. Beare, M. H., Coleman, D. C., Crossley Jr., D. A., Hendrix, P. F. and Odum, E. P. 1995. A hierarchical approach to evaluating the significance of soil biodiversity to biogeochem-ical cycling. Plant Soil 170: 5-22.
9. Berch, S. M., Xiao, G. and Buhner, C. 1999. Commercial mycorrhizal inoculants: value added conifers for site rehabilitation or just another way to spend money? Proceedings: 19th Annual Meeting of the Forest Nursery Association of British Columbia. Extension Services, Tree Improvement Branch, Surrey, BC.
10. Bever, J. D. 2002. Negative feedback within a mutualism: Host-specific growth of mycorrhizal fungi reduces plant benefit. Proc. Royal Soc. Lond. B 269: 2595-2601.
11. Bouchard, M., Kneeshaw, D. and Bergeron, Y. 2008. Ecosystem management based on large-scale disturbance pulses: A case study from sub-boreal forests of western Quebec (Canada). For. Ecol. Manage. 256: 1734-1742.
12. Bray, D. 2003. Molecular networks: the top-down view. Science 301: 1864-1865.
13. British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 2007. Annual report 2006/07. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC.
14. Campbell, R., Smith, D. J. and Arsenault, A. 2003. Multi-century history of western spruce budworm outbreaks in interior Douglas-fir forests near Kamloops, British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 36: 1758-1769.
15. Chapin, F. S., Matson, P. A. and Mooney, H. A. 2002. Principles of terrestrial ecosystems ecology. Springer, New York, NY.
16. Chisholm, A. and Dumsday, R. (eds.). 1987. Land degradation: problems and policies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
17. Dale, V. H., Joyce, L. A., McNulty, S., Neilson, R. P., Ayres, M. P., Flannigan, M. D., Hanson, P. J., Irland, L. C., Lugo, A. E., Peterson, C. J., Simberloff, D., Swanson, F. J., Stocks, B. J and Wotton, B. W. 2001. Climate change can affect forests by altering the frequency, intensity, duration, and timing of fire, drought, introduced species, insect and pathogen outbreaks, hurricanes, windstorms, ice storms, or landslides. BioScience 51: 723-734.
18. Danby, R. K. and Hik, D. S. 2007. Variability, contingency and rapid change in recent subarctic alpine tree line dynamics. J. Ecol. 95: 352-363.
19. Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Penguin Books, London, UK.
20. Dickie, I. A., Xu, B. and Koide, R. T. 2002. Vertical niche differentiation of ectomycorrhizal hyphae in soil as shown by t-RFLP analysis. New Phytol. 156: 527-535.
21. Doidge, N. 2007. The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science. Penguin Books, London, UK.
22. Durall, D. M., Gamiet, S., Simard, S. W., Kudrna, L. and Sakakibara, S. M. 2006. Effects of clearcut logging and tree species composition on the diversity and community composition of epigeous fruit bodies formed by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Can. J. Bot. 84: 966-980.
23. Ellner, S. P. 2001. Habitat structure and population persistence in an experimental community. Nature 412: 538-543.
24. Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nystrom, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B. and Norberg, J. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers Ecol. Environ. 1: 488-494.
25. Ernstson, H., Sörlin, S. and Elmqvist, T. 2008. Social movements and ecosystem services-the role of social network structure in protecting and managing urban green areas in Stockholm. Ecol. Soc. 13: 39.
26. Ettema, C. H. and Wardle, D. A. 2002. Spatial soil ecology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17: 177-183.
27. Fitter, A. H., Gilligan, C. A., Hollingworth, K., Kleczkowski, A., Twyman, R. M. and Pitchford, J. W. 2005. Biodiversity and ecosystem function in soil. Functional Ecol. 19: 369-377.
28. Francis, R. and Read, D. J. 1984. Direct transfer of carbon between plants connected by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal myceilium. Nature 307: 53-56.
29. Geber, M. A. 2008. To the edge: studies of species' range limits. New Phytol. 178: 228-230.
30. Giller, K. E., Beare, M. H., Lavelle, P., Izac, M. N. and Swift, M. J. 1997. Agricultural intensification, soil biodiversity and agroecosystem function. Appl. Soil Ecol. 6: 3-16.
31. Gould, S. J. 1991. Wonderful life: The Burgess Shale and the nature of history. Penguin Books, London, UK.
32. Grime, J. P., Mackey, J. M. L., Hillier, S. H. and Read, D. J. 1987. Floristic diversity in a model system using experimental microcosms. Nature 328: 420-422.
33. Hagerman, S. M., Sakakibara, S. M. and Durall, D. M. 2001. The potential for woody understory plants to provide refuge for ectomycorrhizal inoculum at an interior Douglas-fir forest after clear-cut logging. Can. J. For. Res. 31: 711-721.
34. Hamman, A. and Wang, T. 2006. Potential effects of climate change on ecosystem and tree species distribution in British Columbia. Ecology 87: 2773-2786.
35. Hartnett, D. C. and Wilson G. W. T. 1999. Mycorrhizae influence plant community structure and diversity in tallgrass prairie. Ecology 80: 1187-1195.
36. Heineman, J. E., Mather, W. J., Sachs, D. L. and Simard, S. W. 2008. Analysis of insect, disease, and abiotic factors affecting post-free-growing lodgepole pine in southern interior British Columbia. Forest Sciences Program, Technical Report.
37. Hoeksema, J. D. and Thompson, J. N. 2007. Geographic structure in a widespread plant-mycorrhizal interaction: pines and false truffles. J. Evol. Biol. 20: 1148-1163.
38. Holling, C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 4: 1-23.
39. Hogg, E. H., Brandt, J. P. and Krochtubajda, R. 2002. Growth and dieback of aspen forests in northwestern Alberta, Canada, in relation to climate and insects. Can. J. For. Res. 32: 823-832.
40. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R. K. and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. IPCC., Geneva, Switzerland. 104 pp.
41. Johnstone, J. F. and Chapin, F. S. 2003. Non-equilibrium succession dynamics indicate continued northern migration of lodgepole pine. Global Change Biol. 9: 1401-1409.
42. Jones, M. D., Durall, D. M., Harniman, S. M. K., Classen, D. C. and Simard, S. W. 1997. Ectomycorrhizal diversity on Betula papyrifera and Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings grown in the greenhouse or outplanted in single-species and mixed plots in southern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 1872-1889.
43. Kelly, C. K. 2008. Niche picking: the importance of being temporal. New Phytol. 180: 745-747.
44. Klenner, W., Walton, R., Arsenault, A. and Kramseter, L. 2008. Dry forests in the southern interior of British Columbia: historic disturbances and implications for restoration and management. For. Ecol. Manage. 206: 1711-1722.
45. Klinka, K., Worrall, J., Skoda, L. and Varga, P., 2000. The distribution and synopsis of ecological and silvical characteristics of tree species of British Columbia's forests. Canadian Cartographics Ltd., Vancouver, BC.
46. Klironomos, J. N. 2002. Feedback with soil biota contributes to plant rarity and invasiveness in communities. Nature 417: 67-70.
47. Klironomos, J. N. 2003. Variation in plant response to native and exotic mycorrhizal fungi. Ecology 84: 2292-2301.
48. 2 overestimates community response in a model plant-soil system. Nature 433: 621-624.
49. Koide, R. T., Xu, B., Sharda, J., Lekberg, Y., Ostiguy, N. 2005. Evidence of species interactions within an ectomycorrhizal fungal community. New Phytol. 165: 305-316.
50. Kretzer, A. M., Dunham, S., Molina, R. and Spatafora, J. W. 2003. Microsatellite markers reveal the below ground distribution of genets in two species of Rhizopogon forming tubercu-late ectomycorrhizas on Douglas-fir. New Phytol. 161: 313-320.
51. Kurz, W. A., Dymond, C. C., Stinson, G., Rampley, G. J., Neilson, E. T., Carroll, A. L., Ebata, T. and Safranyik, L. 2008. Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature 452: 987-990.
52. Kytövüta, M.-M., Vestberg, M. and Tuomi, J. 2003. A test of mutual aid in common mycorrhizal networks: established vegetation negates benefit in seedlings. Ecology 84: 898-906.
53. Lantz, T. C. 2008. Relative influence of temperature and disturbance on vegetation dynamics in the Low Arctic: an investigation at multiple scales. Ph.D. dissertation, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. 127 pp.
54. 14C transfer between the spring ephemeral Erythronium americanum and sugar maple saplings via arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in natural stands. Oecologia 132: 181-187.
55. Levin, S. A. 2005. Self-organization and the emergence of complexity in ecological systems. BioScience 55: 1075-1079.
56. Le Roux, P. C. and McGeoch, M. A. 2008. Rapid range expansion and community reorganization in response to warming. Global Change Biol. 14: 2950-2962.
57. Loehle, C. and LeBlanc, D. 1996. Model-based assessments of climate change effects on forests: a critical review. Ecol. Model. 90: 1-31.
58. Logan, J. A. and Powell, J. A. 2001. Ghost forests, global warming, and the mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolyti-dae). Am. Entomol. 47: 160-173.
59. McDowell, N., Pockman, W. T., Allen, C. D., Breshears, D. G., Cobb, N., Kolb, T., Plaut, J., Sperry, J., West, A., Williams, D. G. and Yepez, E. A. 2008. Mechanisms of plant survival and mortality during drought: why do some plants survive while others succumb to drought? New Phytol. 178: 719-739.
60. McGuire, K. L. 2007. Common ectomycorrhizal networks may maintain monodominance in a tropical rain forest. Ecology 88: 567-574.
61. McLachlan, J. S. and Clark, J. S. 2004. Reconstructing historical ranges with fossil data at continental scales. For. Ecol. Manage. 197: 139-147.
62. Mclauchlan, L., Cleary, M., Rankin, L., Stock, A. and Buxton, K. 2007. 2007. Overview of forest health in the southern interior forest region. British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range, Kamloops, BC.
63. Mitsch, W. J., Day Jr., J. W., Gilliam, J. W., Groffman, P. M., Hey, D. L., Randall, G. W. and Wang, N. 2001. Reducing nitrogen loading to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River Basin: strategies to counter a persistent ecological problem. BioScience 51: 373-388.
64. Molina, R., Massicotte, H. and Trappe, J. M. 1992. Specificity phenomenon in mycorrhizal symbiosis: community-ecological consequences and practical implications. Pages 357-423 in M. F. Allen, ed. Mycorrhizal functioning: An integrative plant-fungal process. Chapman Hall, New York, NY.
65. Morrison, D. J., Wallis, G. W. and Weir, L. C. 1988. Control of Armillaria and Phellinus root diseases: 20-year results from the Skimikin stump removal experiment. Can. For. Serv., Pac. For. Cen., Victoria, BC. Inf. Rep. BC-X-302.
66. Mueller, R. C., Scudder, C. M., Porter, M. E., Trotter III, R. T., Gehring, C. A. and Whitham, T. G. 2005. Differential tree mortality in response to severe drought: evidence for long-term vegetation shifts. J. Ecology 93: 1085-1093.
67. Nara, K. and Hogetsu, T. 2004. Ectomycorrhizal fungi on established shrubs facilitate subsequent seedling establishment of successional plant species. Ecology 85: 1700-1707.
68. Newsome, T. A., Sutherland, D. C. and Vyse, A. 1991. Establishing Douglas-fir plantations in the dry belt of interior British Columbia. Pages 227-233 in D. M. Baumgartner and J. E. Lotan, eds. Interior Douglas-fir: the species and its management. Washington State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Seattle, WA.
69. Newsome, T. A. 1998. Site preparation on dry grassy sites in the Cariboo Forest Region. Pages 53-61 in A. Vyse, C. Hollstedt, and D. Huggard, eds. Managing the dry Douglas-fir forests of the southern interior: Workshop Proceedings, 1997 Apr, 29-30, Kamloops, Canada. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC. Work. Pap. 34.
70. Ostrom, E., Janssen, M. A. and Anderies, J. M. 2007. Going beyond panaceas. PNAS 104: 15176-15178.
71. Parmesan, C. 2006. Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 37: 637-669.
72. Pietikäinen, A. and Kytövüta, M.-M. 2007. Defoliation changes mycorrhizal benefit and competitive interactions between seedlings and adult plants. J. Ecol. 95: 639-647.
73. Petit, R. J., Aguinagalde, I., de Beaulieu, L., Bittkau, C., Brewer, S., Cheddadi, R., Ennos, R., Fineschi, S., Grivet, D., Lascoux, M., Mohanty, A., Müller-Starck, G., Demesure-Musch, B., Palmé, A., Martin, J. P., Rendell, S. and Vendramin, G. G. 2003. Glacial refugia: hotspots but not melting pots of genetic diversity. Science 300: 1563-1565.
74. Philip, L. J. 2006. Carbon transfer between ectomycorrhizal paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
75. Proulx, S. R., Promislow, D. E. and Phillips, P. C. 2005. Network thinking in ecology and evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20: 345-353.
76. Rehfeldt, G. E., Wykoff, W. R. and Ying, C. C. 2001. Physiological plasticity, evolution and impacts of a changing climate on Pinus contorta. Climatic Change 50: 355-37.
77. Reinhart, K. O. and Callaway, R. M. 2006. Soil biota and invasive plants. New Phytol. 170: 445-457.
78. Rillig, M. C. and Mummy, D. L. 2006. Mycorrhizas and soil structure. New Phytol. 171: 41-53.
79. Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S., Foley, J. A., Folke, C. and Walker, B. 2002. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413: 591-596.
80. Schoonmaker, A. L., Teste, F. P., Simard, S. W. and Guy, R. D. 2007. Tree proximity, soil pathways and common mycorrhizal networks: their influence on utilization of redistributed water by understory seedlings. Oecologia 154: 455-466.
81. Selosse, M.-A., Richard, F., He, X. and Simard, S. W. 2006. Mycorrhizal networks: les liaisons dangeureuses? Trends Ecol. Evol. 21: 621-628.
82. Seybold, C. A., Herrick, J. E. and Brejda, J. J. 1999. Soil resilience: A fundamental component of soil quality. Soil Sci. 164: 224-234.
83. Simard, S. W. and Durall, D. M. 2004. Mycorrhizal networks: a review of their extent, function, and importance. Can. J. Bot. 82: 1140-1165.
84. Simard, S. W. and Vyse, A. 2006. Trade-offs between competition and facilitation: A case study of vegetation management in the interior cedar-hemlock forests of southern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 36: 2486-2496.
85. Simard, S. W., Hagerman, S. M., Sachs, D. L., Heineman, J. L. and Mather, W. J. 2005. Conifer growth, Armillaria ostoyae root disease and plant diversity responses to broadleaf competition reduction in temperate mixed forests of southern interior British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 35: 843-859.
86. Simard, S. W., Jones, M. D. and Durall D. M. 2002. Carbon and nutrient fluxes within and between mycorrhizal plants. Pages 33-61 in M. van der Heijden and I. Sanders, eds. Mycorrhizal ecology. Ecological studies. Vol. 157. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.
87. Simard, S. W., Jones, M. D., Durall, D. M., Hope, G. D., Stathers, R. J., Sorensen, N. S. and Zimonick, B. J. 2003. Chemical and mechanical site preparation: effects on Pinus contorta growth, physiology, and microsite quality on steep forest sites in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 33: 1495-1515.
88. Simard, S. W., Perry, D. A., Jones, M. D., Myrold, D. D., Durall, D. M. and Molina, R. 1997a. Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field. Nature 388: 579-582.
89. Simard, S. W., Perry, D. A., Smith, J. W. and Molina, R. 1997b. Effects of soil trenching on occurrence of ectomycor-rhizae on Psuedostuga menziesii seedlings grown in mature forests of Betula papyrifera and Psuedotsuga menziesii. New Phytol. 136: 327-340.
90. Southworth, D., He, X.-H., Swenson, W. and Bledsoe, C. S. 2005. Application of network theory to potential mycorrhizal networks. Mycorrhiza 15: 589-595.
91. Stark, K. E., Arsenault, A. and Bradfield, G. E. 2006. Soil seed banks and plant community assembly following disturbance by fire and logging in the interior Douglas-fir forests of south-central British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 84: 1548-1560.
92. Suding, K. N., Gross, K. L. and Houseman, G. R. 2004. Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19: 46-53.
93. Taylor, S. W., Carroll, A. L., Alfaro, R. I and Safranyik, L. 2006. Pages 67-94 in L. Safranyik and B. Wilson, eds. The mountain pine beetle: A synthesis of biology, management and impacts in lodgepole pine. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Victoria, BC.
94. Tedersoo, L., Koljalg, U., Hallenberg, N. and Larsson, K. H. 2003. Fine scale distribution of ectomycorrhizal fungi and roots across substrate layers including coarse woody debris in a mixed forest. New Phytol. 159: 153-165.
95. Teste, F. P. 2008. Role of mycorrhizal networks in dry Douglas-fir forests. Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
96. Teste, F. P. and Simard, S. W. 2008. Mycorrhizal networks and distance from mature trees alter patterns of competition and facilitation in dry Douglas-fir forests. Oecologia 158: 193-203.
97. Teste, F. P., Simard, S. W. and Durall, D. M. 2009a. Role of mycorrhizal networks and tree proximity in ectomycorrhizal colonization of planted seedlings. Fungal Ecol. 2: 21-30.
98. Teste, F. P., Simard, S. W., Durall, D. M., Guy, R. D., Jones, M. D. and Schoonmaker, A. L. 2009b. Access to mycorrhizal networks and roots fo trees: importance for seedling survival and resource transfer. Ecology (in press).
99. Theit, R. and Boerner, R. 2007. Spatial patterns of ectomycor-rhizal fungal inoculum in arbuscular mycorrhizal barrens communities: implications for controlling invasion by Pinus virginiana. Mycorrhiza 17: 507-517.
100. Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E. Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., Erasmus, B. F. N., de Siqueira, M. F., Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, B., van Jaarsveld, A. S., Midgley, G. F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M. A., Peterson, A. T., Philips, O. L. and Williams, S. E. 2004. Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427: 145-148.
101. Thuiller, W. 2007. Climate change and the ecologist. Nature 448: 550-552.
102. Tilman, D. and Pacala, S. 1993. The maintenance of species richness in plant communities. Pages 13-25 in R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter, eds. Species diversity in ecological communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
103. Twieg, B., Durall, D. M. and Simard, S. W. 2007. Ectomycorrhizal fungal succession in mixed temperate forests. New Phytol. 176: 437-447.
104. Twieg, B., Durall, D. M., Simard, S. W. and Jones, M. D. 2009. Influence of soil nutrients on ectomycorrhizal communities in a chronosequence of mixed temperate forests. Mycorrhiza 19: 304-316.
105. Trappe, J. M. 1977. Selection of fungi for ectomycorrhizal inoculation in nurseries. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 15: 203-222.
106. van der Heijden, M. G. A. 2002. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as a determinant of plant diversity: in search for underlying mechanisms and general principles. Pages 243-265 in M. G. A. van der Heijden and I. Sanders, eds. Mycorrhizal ecology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
107. Vyse, A., Ferguson, C., Simard, S. W., Kano, T. and Puttonen, P. 2006. Growth of Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and ponder-osa pine underplanted in a partially-cut, dry Douglas-fir stand in south central British Columbia. For. Chron. 82: 723-732.
108. Walther, E. R., Post, E., Convey, P., Menzel, A., Parmesan, C., Beebee, T. J. C., Fromentin, J.-M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bairlein, F. 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 416: 389-395.
109. Whitham, T. G., Bailey, J. K., Schweitzer, J. A., Shuster, S. M., Bangert, R. K., LeRoy, C. J., Lonsdorf, E. V., Allan, G. J., DiFazio, S. P., Potts, P. M., Fischer, D. G., Gehring, K. A., Lindroth, R. L., Marks, J. C., Hart, S. C., Wimp, G. M. and Wooley, S. C. 2006. A framework for community and ecosystem genetics: from genes to ecosystems. Nat. Rev. Genet. 7: 510-523.
110. Wolfe, B. E., Parrent, J. L., Koch, A. M., Sikes, B. A., Gardes, M. and Klironomos, J. N. 2009. Spatial heterogeneity in mycorrhizal populations and communities: scales and mechanisms. Pages 167-185 in C. Azcón-Aguilar, J. M. Barea, S. Gianinazzi, and V. Gianinazzi-Pearson, eds. Mycorrhizas: functional processes and ecological impact. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
111. Woods, A. J. 1994. The behaviour and impact of Armillaria ostoyae in mature stands and plantations in the Shuswap region of British Columbia. M. Sc. thesis. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
112. Woods, A., Coates, K. D. and Hamman, A. 2005. Is an unprecedented Dothistroma needle blight epidemic related to climate change? BioScience 55: 761-769.