Ecosystem consequences of contrasting flow regimes in an urban effects stream mesocosm study

Journal of the American Water Resources Association

Volumn 45, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 907-927

  Taulbee, W Keith ^a   Nietch, Christopher T ^b   Brown, Donald ^b   Ramakrishnan, Balaji ^c   Tompkins, M Jackie ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c Shaw Environmental Inc   (United States)

Author keywords

Aquatic ecology; Biogeochemistry; Mesocosms; Rivers streams; Sediment transport; Stormwater management; Urbanization

Indexed keywords

AQUATIC ECOLOGY; BASEFLOWS; ENGINEERING DESIGN; FINE SEDIMENTS; FLOW DYNAMICS; FLOW REGIMES; GRAVEL BED; HYDROGRAPHS; INITIAL MASS; MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY; MESOCOSMS; ON-STREAM; PEAK FLOWS; RAIN EVENTS; SEASONALITY; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PROCESS; SIMULATED STORMS; STORMWATER MANAGEMENT; STREAMBEDS; SUBSTRATE QUALITY; URBAN EFFECT; URBAN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT; URBANIZATION;

BIOCHEMISTRY; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; ENGINEERING GEOLOGY; EROSION; EXPERIMENTS; GRAVEL; GROUNDWATER FLOW; RIVERS; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; SEDIMENTATION; SEDIMENTOLOGY; SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL; STORM SEWERS; WATER POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY;

ECOSYSTEMS;

BASEFLOW; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; HYDROGRAPH; INFILTRATION; MESOCOSM; SAMPLING; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; STORMWATER; URBAN AREA; WATER FLOW; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER TREATMENT;

ALGAE; HEXAPODA; INVERTEBRATA;

EID: 68749111166     PISSN: 1093474X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2009.00336.x     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Aloi, J.E., 1990. A Critical Review of Recent Freshwater Periphyton Field Methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47 : 656 670.
2. APHA (American Public Health Association 2001. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (Twentieth Edition). APHA, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. United Book Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
3. Arar, E.J. G.B. Collins, 1992. In Vitro Determination of Chlorophyll a and Pheophytin a in Marine and Freshwater Algae by Fluorescence. U.S. EPA Method 445.0, Revision 1.2. U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office or Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio.
4. Arnold, C.L. C.J. Gibbons, 1996. Impervious Surface Coverage: The Emergence of a Key Environmental Indicator. Journal of the American Planning Association 62 : 243 258.
5. ASTM (American Society for Testing, Materials 2004. Standard Test Methods for Determining Sediment Concentration in Water Samples: D3977-97. ASTM 11.02 : 393 398.
6. Baer, K. C.M. Pringle, 2000. Special Problems in Urban River Conservation: The Encroaching Megalopolis, Chapter 16. In : Global Perspectives on River Conservation: Science, Policy and Practice, P.J. Boon, B.R. Davies G.E. Petts (Editors). John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 385 402.
7. Baker, D.B., R.P. Richards, T.T. Loftus J.W. Kramer, 2004. A New Flashiness Index: Characteristics and Application to Midwestern Rivers and Streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 40 : 503 522.
8. Bartley, R. I. Rutherford, 2005. Re-Evaluation of the Wave Model as a Tool for Quantifying the Geomorphic Recovery Potential of Streams Disturbed by Sediment Slugs. Geomorphology 64 : 221 242.
9. Belanger, S.E., 2003. Lessons Learned During 15 Years of Research at the Procter & Gamble Experimental Stream Facility. SETAC Globe 4 : 39 40.
10. Bennett, G., 2006. Stormwater Management at a Headwatershed Scale: The Case of Shaylor Crossing. Master's Thesis, School of Planning, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.
11. Biggs, B.J.F., R.J. Stevenson R.L. Lowe, 1998. A Habitat Matrix Conceptual Model of Stream Periphyton. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 143 : 21 56.
12. Bledsoe, B.P. C.C. Watson, 2000. Observed Thresholds of Stream Ecosystem Degradation in Urbanizing Areas: A Process-Based Geomorphic Explanation. In : Watershed Management 2000: Science and Technology for the New Millennium, M. Flug D. Frevert (Editors). ASCE, Fort Collins, Colorado, pp. 1 10.
13. Bledsoe, B.P. C.C. Watson, 2001. Effects of Urbanization on Channel Instablity. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 37 : 255 270.
14. Bond, N.R. B.J. Downes, 2003. The Independent and Interactive Effects of Fine Sediment and Flow on Benthic Invertebrate Communities Characteristic of Small Upland Streams. Freshwater Biology 48 : 455 465.
15. Booth, D.B., 1990. Stream-Channel Incision Following Drainage-Basin Urbanization. Water Resources Bulletin 26 : 407 417.
16. Booth, D.B. C.R. Jackson, 1997. Urbanization of Aquatic Systems: Degradation Thresholds, Stormwater Detection, and the Limits of Mitigation. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33 : 1077 1090.
17. Brazner, J.C. E.W. Beals, 1997. Patterns in Fish Assemblages From Coastal Wetland and Beach Habitats in Green Bay, Lake Michigan: A Multivariate Analysis of Abiotic and Biotic Forcing Factors. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54 : 1743 1761.
18. Buffington, J.M. D.R. Montgomery, 1997. A Systematic Analysis of Eight Decades of Incipient Motion Studies, With Special Reference to Gravel-Bedded Rivers. Water Resources Research 33 : 1993 2029.
19. Bullard, R.D., 2000. Anatomy of Sprawl. In : Sprawl City, R.D. Bullard, G.S. Johnson A.O. Torres (Editors). Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 1 20.
20. Bunte, K. S.R. Abt, 2001. Sampling Surface and Subsurface Particle-Size Distributions in Wadable Gravel- and Cobble-Bed Streams for Analyses in Sediment Transport, Hydraulics, and Streambed Monitoring. U.S. Forest Service, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-74, Fort Collins, Colorado.
21. Cardinale, B.J., M.A. Palmer, C.M. Swan, S. Brooks N.L. Poff, 2002. The Influence of Substrate Heterogeneity on Biofilm Metabolism in a Stream Ecosystem. Ecology 83 : 412 422.
22. Carr, G.M., P.A. Chambers A. Morin, 2005. Periphyton, Water Quality, and Land Use at Multiple Spatial Scales in Alberta Rivers. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62 : 1309 1319.
23. Chadwick, M.A., D.R. Dobberfuhl, A.C. Benke, A.D. Huryn, K. Suberkropp J.E. Thiele, 2006. Urbanization Affects Stream Ecosystem Function by Altering Hydrology, Chemistry, and Biotic Richness. Ecological Applications 16 : 1796 1807.
24. Claytor, R.A. T.R. Schueler, 1996. Design of Stormwater Filtering Systems. The Center for Watershed Protection. Silver Spring, Maryland.
25. Cohen, J.E., 2003. Human Population: The Next Half Century. Science 3302 : 1172 1175.
26. Dahm, C.N., N.B. Grimm, P. Marmonier, H.M. Valett P. Vervier, 1998. Nutrient Dynamics at the Interface Between Surface Waters and Groundwaters. Freshwater Biology 40 : 427 451.
27. Dancey, C.L., P. Diplas, A. Papanicolaou M. Bala, 2002. Probability of Individual Grain Movement and Threshold Condition. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 128 : 1069 1075.
28. Dodds, W.K., 2003. The Role of Periphyton in Phosphorus Retention in Shallow Freshwater Aquatic Systems. Journal of Phycology 39 : 840 849.
29. Dunne, T. L.B. Leopold, 1978. Water in Environmental Planning. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California.
30. Finkenbine, J.K., J.W. Atwater D.S. Mavinic, 2000. Stream Health After Urbanization. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 36 : 1149 1160.
31. Gayraud, S. M. Philippe, 2003. Influence of Bed-Sediment Features on the Interstitial Habitat Available for Macroinvertebrates in 15 French Streams. International Review of Hydrobiology 88 : 77 93.
32. Gibbins, C.N., D. Vericat, R.J. Batalla C.M. Gomez, 2007. Shaking and Moving: Low Rates of Sediment Transport Trigger Mass Drift of Stream Invertebrates. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 64 : 1 5.
33. Grimm, N.B., R.W. Sheibley, C.L. Crenshaw, C.N. Dahm, W.J. Roach L.H. Zeglin, 2005. N Retention and Transformation in Urban Streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24 : 626 642.
34. Halwas, K.L., M. Church J.S. Richardson, 2005. Benthic Assemblage Variation Among Channel Units in High-Gradient Streams on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24 : 478 494.
35. Haschenburger, J.K. P.R. Wilcock, 2003. Partial Transport in a Natural Gravel Bed Channel. Water Resources Research 39 : 1020 1029.
36. Hill, W.R. H.L. Boston, 1991. Community Development Alters Photosynthesis-Irradiance Relations in Stream Periphyton. Limnology and Oceanography 36 : 1375 1389.
37. Hoffman, A.L., J.D. Olden, J.B. Monroe, N.L. Poff, T. Wellnitz J.A. Wiens, 2006. Current Velocity and Habitat Patchiness Shape Stream Herbivore Movement. Oikos 115 : 358 368.
38. Hsü, K.J., 2004. Physics of Sedimentology: Textbook and Reference. Springer, Berlin.
39. Johnson, B.R., W.F. Cross J.B. Wallace, 2003. Long-Term Resource Limitation Reduces Insect Detritivore Growth in a Headwater Stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 22 : 565 574.
40. Jones, R.C. C.C. Clark, 1987. Impacts of Watershed Urbanization on Stream Insect Communities. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 23 : 1047 1055.
41. Jowett, I.G., 1993. A Method for Objectively Identifying Pool, Run, and Riffle Habitats From Physical Measurements. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 27 : 241 248.
42. Kahlert, M., 1998. C:N:P Ratios of Freshwater Benthic Algae. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 51 : 105 114.
43. Kaller, M.D. K.J. Hartman, 2004. Evidence of a Threshold Level of Fine Sediment Accumulation for Altering Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities. Hydrobiologia 518 : 95 104.
44. Kaufmann, P.R., J.M. Faustinib, D.P. Larsenc M.A. Shirazia, 2008. A Roughness-Corrected Index of Relative Bed Stability for Regional Stream Surveys. Geomorphology 99 : 150 170.
45. Kaufmann, P.R., P. Levine, E.G. Robison, C. Seeliger D.V. Peck, 1999. Quantifying Physical Habitat in Wadeable Streams. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Regional Ecology Branch, Western Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, EPA-620-R-99-003, Corvalis, Oregon.
46. Kenworthy, S.T. P.R. Wilcock, 2001. Sediment Entrainment and Displacement of Aquatic Insect Larvae: Results From a Laboratory Study. In : Gravel Bed Rivers 2000, T. Nolan C. Thorne (Editors). New Zeeland Hydrological Society, Wellington.
47. Kiffney, P.M. J.P. Bull, 2000. Factors Controlling Periphyton Accrual During Summer in Headwater Streams of Southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 15 : 339 351.
48. Kozerski, H.P., 2003. Seston Sedimentation in a Lowland River (River Spree, Germany): Their Spatial and Temporal Variations and Controlling Factors. Hydrobiologia 494 : 51 55.
49. Lamouroux, N. I.G. Jowett, 2005. Generalized Instream Habitat Models. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62 : 7 14.
50. Lisle, T.E., 1989. Sediment Transport and Resulting Deposition in Spawning Gravels, North Coastal California. Water Resources Research 25 : 1303 1319.
51. Lytle, D.A. N.L. Poff, 2004. Adaptation to Natural Flow Regimes. TRENDS in Ecology and Evolution 19 : 94 100.
52. Maxted, J.R. E. Shaver, 1997. The Use of Retention Basins to Mitigate Stormwater Impacts on Aquatic Life. In : Proceedings Effects of Watershed Development and Management on Aquatic Systems, L.A. Roesner (Editor). American Society of Civil Engineers, Snowbird, Utah, pp. 494 512.
53. McCuen, R.H. G.E. Moglen, 1988. Multicriterion Stormwater Management Methods. Journal of Water Research and Planning 114 : 414 431.
54. McCune, B. J.B. Grace, 2002. Analysis of Ecological Communities (Second Edition). MJM Software Design, Gleneden Beach, Oregon.
55. McRae, C.R., 1993. An Alternative Design Approach for the Control of Stream Erosion Potential in Urbanizing Watersheds. In : Proceedings, J. Marsalek H. Torno (Editors). 6th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Niagara Falls, Canada, pp. 405 410.
56. McRae, C.R., 1997. Experience From Morphological Research on Canadian Streams: Is Control of the Two-Year Frequency Runoff Event the Best Basis for Stream Channel Protection? In : Effects of Watershed Development and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, L.A. Roesner (Editor). ASCE, New York, pp. 144 160.
57. Meyer, J.L., M.J. Paul W.K. Taulbee, 2005. Stream Ecosystem Function in Urbanizing Landscapes. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24 : 602 612.
58. Miller, W. A. Boulton, 2005. Managing and Rehabilitating Ecosystem Processes in Regional Urban Streams in Australia. Hydrobiologia 552 : 121 133.
59. Moulton, II. S.R., J.L. Carter, S.A. Grotheer, T.F. Cuffney T.M. Short, 2000. Methods of Analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory; Processing, Taxonomy, and Quality Control of Benthic Macroinvertebrate Samples. U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 00-212, Denver, Colorado.
60. MRCC (Midwestern Regional Climate Center 2000. Historical Climate Data Precipitation Summary Station: 335268, Milford, Ohio. http://www.mcc.sws.uiuc. edu/climate-midwest/historical/precip/oh/335268-psum.html, accessed September 30, 2008.
61. Nehrke, S.M. L.A. Roesner, 2004. Effects of Design Practice for Flood Control and Best Management Practices on the Flow-Frequency Curve. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 130 : 131 139.
62. Nietch, C.T., M. Borst J.P. Schubauer-Berigan, 2005. Risk Management of Sediment Stress: A Framework for Sediment Risk Management. Environmental Management 36 : 175 194.
63. Nilsson, C., J.E. Pizzuto, G.E. Moglen, M.A. Palmer, E.H. Stanley, N.E. Bockstael L.C. Thompson, 2003. Ecological Forecasting and the Urbanization of Stream Ecosystems: Challenges for Economists, Hydrologists, Geomorphologists, and Ecologists. Ecosystems 6 : 659 674.
64. Nisbet, R.M., S. Diehl, W.G. Wilson, S.D. Cooper, D.D. Donaldson K. Kratz, 1997. Primary-Productivity Gradients and Short-Term Population Dynamics in Open Systems. Ecological Monographs 67 : 535 553.
65. OEPA (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency 1995. Biological and Water Quality Study of the Little Miami River and Selected Tributaries. Clark, Green, Montgomery, Warren, Clermont, and Hamilton Counties (Ohio). OEPA, Technical Report MAS-1994-12-11, Columbus, Ohio.
66. Palmer, M., G. Moglen, N. Bockstael, S. Brooks, J. Pizzuto, C. Wiegand K. VanNess, 2002. The Ecological Consequences of Changing Land Use for Running Waters, With a Case Study of Urbanizing Watersheds in Maryland. Yale Bulletin of Environmental Science 107 : 85 113.
67. Paul, M.J. J.L. Meyer, 2001. Streams in the Urban Landscape. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32 : 333 365.
68. Peterson, B.J., W.M. Wollheim, P.J. Mulholland, J.R. Webster, J.L. Meyer, J.L. Tank, E. Martí, W.B. Bowden, H.M. Valett, A.E. Hershey, W.H. McDowell, W.K. Dodds, S.K. Hamilton, S. Gregory D.D. Morrall, 2001. Control of Nitrogen Export From Watersheds by Headwater Streams. Science 292 : 86 90.
69. Pitt, R., S. Clark D.W. Lake, 2007. Construction Site Erosion and Sediment Controls: Planning, Design and Performance. DEStech Publications, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
70. Pitt, R. J. Voorhees, 2003. The Design, Use, and Evaluation of Wet Detention Ponds for Stormwater Quality Management Using WinDETPOND. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
71. Poff, N.L., 1996. A Hydrogeography of Unregulated Streams in the United States and an Examination of Scale-Dependence in Some Hydrological Descriptors. Freshwater Biology 36 : 71 91.
72. Poff, N.L. J.D. Allan, 1995. Functional Organization of Stream Fish Assemblages in Relation to Hydrological Variability. Ecology 76 : 606 627.
73. Poff, N.L., B.P. Bledsoe C.O. Cuhaciyan, 2006. Hydrologic Variation With Land Use Across the Contiguous United States: Geomorphic and Ecological Consequences for Stream Ecosystems. Geomorphology 79 : 264 285.
74. Power, M.A., 1992. Hydrologic and Trophic Controls of Seasonal Algal Blooms in Northern California Streams. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 125 : 385 410.
75. ® Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.
76. Quinn, J.M. C.W. Hickey, 1990. Magnitude of Effects of Substrate Particle Size, Recent Flooding, and Catchment Development on Benthic Invertebrates in 88 New Zealand Rivers. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 24 : 411 427.
77. Roesner, L.A., 1999. Urban Runoff Pollution - Summary Thoughts - the State-of-Practice Today and for the 21st Century. Water Science and Technology 39 : 353 360.
78. Roesner, L.A., B.P. Bledsoe R.W. Brashear, 2001. Are Best-Management- Practice Criteria Really Environmentally Friendly? Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 127 : 150 154.
79. Rosemond, A.D., 1993. Interactions Among Irradiance, Nutrients, and Herbivores Constrain a Stream Algal Community. Oecologia 94 : 585 594.
80. Roy, A.H., M.C. Freeman, B.J. Freeman, S.J. Wenger, W.E. Ensign J.L. Meyer, 2005a. Investigating Hydrologic Alteration as a Mechanism of Fish Assemblage Shifts in Urbanizing Streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Association 24 : 656 678.
81. Roy, A.H., A.L. Mayer, W.D. Shuster, H.W. Thurston, N.T. Hoagland, M.P. Clagett, P.K. Parikah M.A. Taylor, 2005b. A Multidisciplinary Approach to Stormwater Management at the Watershed Scale. In : 10th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Copenhagen, Denmark.
82. Roy, A., S. Wenger, T. Fletcher, C. Walsh, A. Ladson, W. Shuster, H. Thurston R. Brown, 2008. Impediments and Solutions to Sustainable, Watershed-Scale Urban Stormwater Management: Lessons From Australia and the United States. Environmental Management 42 : 344 359.
83. Ryan, P.A., 1991. Environmental Effects of Sediment on New Zealand Streams: A Review. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 25 : 207 221.
84. ® Method 10-115-01-1-B. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.
85. Schueler, T., 1994. The Importance of Imperviousness. Watershed Protection Techniques 1 : 100 111.
86. Schweizer, S., M.E. Borsuk, I. Jowett P. Reichert, 2007. Predicting Joint Frequency Distributions of Depth and Velocity for Instream Habitat Assessment. River Research and Applications 23 : 287 302.
87. Scrimgeour, G.J., J.M. Culp, M.L. Bothwell, F.J. Wrona M.H. McKee, 1991. Mechanisms of Algal Patch Depletion: Importance of Consumptive and Non-Consumptive Losses in Mayfly-Diatom Systems. Oecologia 85 : 343 348.
88. Simmons, D.L. R.J. Reynolds, 1982. Effects of Urbanization on Base Flow of Selected South-Shore Streams, Long Island, New York. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 18 : 797 805.
89. ® Method 10-107-06-1-B. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.
90. Sonneman, J.A., C.J. Walsh, P.F. Breen A.K. Sharpe, 2001. Effects of Urbanization on Streams of the Melbourne Region, Victoria, Australia. II. Benthic Diatom Communities. Freshwater Biology 46 : 553 565.
91. Stepenuck, K.F., R.L. Crunkilton L. Wang, 2002. Impacts of Urban Landuse on Macroinvertebrate Communities in Southeastern Wisconsin Streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 38 : 1041 1051.
92. Strayer, D.L., R.E. Beighley, L.C. Thompson, S. Brooks, C. Nilsson, G. Pinay R.J. Naiman, 2003. Effects of Land Cover on Stream Ecosystems: Roles of Empirical Models and Scaling Issues. Ecosystems 6 : 407 423.
93. Suren, A.M., 2000. Effects of Urbanization. In : New Zealand Stream Invertebrates: Ecology and Implications for Management, K.J. Collier M.J. Winterbourn (Editors). New Zealand Limnological Society, Christchurch, pp. 260 288.
94. Suren, A.M. A.G. Jowett, 2006. Effects of Floods Versus Low Flows on Invertebrates in a New Zealand Gravel-Bed River. Freshwater Biology 51 : 2207 2227.
95. Taylor, S.L., S.C. Roberts, C.J. Walsh B.E. Hatt, 2004. Catchment Urbanization and Increased Benthic Algal Biomass in Streams: Linking Mechanisms to Management. Freshwater Biology 49 : 835 851.
96. Torizzo, M. J. Pitlick, 2004. Magnitude-Frequency of Bed Load Transport in Mountain Streams in Colorado. Journal of Hydrology 290 : 137 151.
97. Trimble, S.W., 1997. Contribution of Stream Channel Erosion to Sediment Yield From an Urbanizing Watershed. Science 278 : 1442 1444.
98. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1994. Moving the NPDES Program to a Watershed Approach. Office of Wastewater Management, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
99. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1996. Biological Criteria: Technical Guidance for Streams and Small Rivers, Revised Edition. Office of Science and Technology, EPA-822-B-96-001, Washington, D.C.
100. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2002. Urbanization and Streams: Studies of Hydrologic Impacts. Office of Wetlands, and Watersheds, Washington, D.C. http://www.epa.gov/owow/NPS/urbanize/report.html, accessed September 27, 2008.
101. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2005. Handbook for Developing Watershed Plans to Restore and Protect Our Waters. Office of Water, EPA 841-B-05-005, Washington, D.C.
102. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2007. National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution From Hydromodification. Office of Water, EPA 841-B-07-002, Washington, D.C.
103. Vieira, N.K.M., N.L. Poff, D.M. Carlisle, S.R., II. Moulton, M.L. Koski B.C. Kondratieff, 2006. A Database of Lotic Invertebrate Traits for North America. U.S. Geological Survey, Data Series 187, Reston, Virginia. http://www.pubs.water.usgs.gov/ds187, accessed August 13, 2007.
104. Walsh, C.J., 2004. Protection of in-Stream Biota From Urban Impacts: To Minimize Chatchment Imperviousness or to Improve Drainage Design? Marine and Freshwater Research 55 : 317 326.
105. Walsh, C.J., A.H. Roy, J.W. Feminella, P.D. Cottingham, P.M. Groffman R.P. Morgan, 2005. The Urban Stream Syndrome: Current Knowledge and the Search for a Cure. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24 : 706 723.
106. Walsh, C.J., A.K. Sharpe, P.F. Breen J.A. Sonneman, 2001. Effects of Urbanization on Streams of the Melbourne Region, Victoria, Australia. I. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities. Freshwater Biology 46 : 535 551.
107. Wang, L. J. Lyons, 2003. Fish and Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblages as Indicators of Stream Degradation in Urbanizing Watersheds. In : Biological Response Signatures: Indicator Patterns Using Aquatic Communities, T.P. Simon (Editor). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 227 248.
108. Ward, A.D. S.W. Trimble, 2004. Environmental Hydrology (Second Edition). CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.
109. Wellnitz, T. N.L. Poff, 2006. Herbivory, Current Velocity and Algal Regrowth: How Does Periphyton Grow When the Grazers Have Gone? Freshwater Biology 51 : 2114 2123.
110. Wendt, K., 1995. Determination of Nitrate-Nitrite in Surface and Wastewaters by Flow Injection Analysis: Quikchem® Method 10-107-04-1-A. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.
111. Wetzel, R.G. G.E. Likens, 2000. Limnological Analyses (Third Edition). Springer, New York.
112. Whiting, P.J. W.E. Dietrich, 1990. Boundary Shear Stress and Roughness Over Mobile Alluvial Beds. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 116 : 1495 1511.
113. Whiting, P.J., J.F. Stamm, D.B. Moog R.L. Orndorff, 1999. Sediment-Transporting Flows in Headwater Streams. Geological Society of America Bulletin 111 : 450 466.
114. Wilcock, P.R., 1998. Two-Fraction Model of Initial Sediment Motion in Gravel-Bed Rivers. Science 280 : 410 412.
115. Wilcock, P.R., 2004. Sediment Transport Seminar: Lecture 3, the Sediment Problem. University of California, Berkeley, California. http://www.socrates. berkeley.edu/∼geomorph/wilcock/wilcock.html, accessed November 30, 2007.
116. Wolman, M.G., 1954. A Method of Sampling Coarse River-Bed Material. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (EOS) 35 : 951 956.
117. Wolman, M.G., 1967. A Cycle of Sedimentation and Erosion in Urban River Channels. Geografiska Annaler 49 : 385 395.
118. Wootton, J.T. M.E. Power, 1993. Productivity, Consumers, and the Structure of a River Food Chain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90 : 1384 1387.
119. Wuensch, K.L., 2007. Comparing Correlation Coefficients, Slopes, and Intercepts. Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina. http://www.core.ecu.edu/psyc/wuenschk/StatsLessons.htm, accessed August 16, 2008.